Female statuette wearing thekaunakes. Chlorite and limestone,Bactria, beginning of the second millennium BC.
The region currently known as the country of Uzbekistan has been referred to by many names over the millennia. The name Uzbekistan first appears in 16th century literature.[26] Other names for the region include:Transoxiana,Turkestan, andBukhara. In the 14th century the region served as the birthplace, home, and capital ofTamerlane. Under Tamerlane, the region was a part of theTimurid Empire which extended from theBlack Sea to theArabian Sea, and to just outside ofDelhi, India.
Prehistory and ancient history
Central Asia was frequented by multipleIndo-European migrations. During earlyantiquity the region was inhabited by nomadicScythian tribes who came from theEurasian Steppe which includes modern Uzbekistan, sometime in during first millennium BC. When these nomadic tribes settled in the region they built an extensive irrigation system along the rivers.[29] At this time, cities such as Bukhoro (Bukhara) and Samarqand (Samarkand) emerged as centres of government and high culture.[29] By the fifth century BC, theBactrian,Sogdian, andTokharian states dominated the region.[29]
AsEast Asia began to develop its silk trade with the West, using an extensive network of cities and rural settlements in the province ofTransoxiana, and further east in what is todayXinjiang, the Sogdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these merchants. As a result of this trade on what became known as theSilk Road, Bukhara and Samarkand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at timesTransoxiana (Mawarannahr) was one of the most influential and powerful provinces of antiquity.[29]
TheAchaemenid emperorsCyrus the Great, and laterDarius the Great exerted control of theAmu Darya, incorporatingBactria andChorasmia assatrapies. Historical Iranian texts later record the region asTuran. In 327 BC, Macedonian rulerAlexander the Great conquered thePersian Empire provinces of Sogdiana and Bactria, which contained the territories of modern Uzbekistan. Popular resistance to the conquest was fierce, causing Alexander's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of the MacedonianGreco-Bactrian Kingdom. The kingdom was replaced with the Yuezhi-dominatedKushan Empire in the first century BC. For many centuries thereafter the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by theHephthalites andSassanid Empires, as well as by other empires, for example, those formed by the TurkicGokturk peoples.
TheMuslim conquests from the seventh century onward saw theArabs bringIslam to Uzbekistan. In the same period, Islam began to take root among the nomadicTurkic peoples.
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Transoxiana was brought into theSamanid State. In the tenth century it was gradually dominated by the Turkic-ruledKarakhanids, as well as theirSeljuk (Sultan Sanjar) overseer's.[30]
TheMongol conquest underGenghis Khan during the 13th century brought change to the region. The invasions of Bukhara, Samarkand,Urgench and others resulted inmass murders and unprecedented destruction, which saw parts ofKhwarezmia being completely razed.[31]
Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, his empire was divided among his four sons and family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, an orderly succession continued for several generations. Control of most of Transoxiana stayed in the hands of the direct descendants ofChagatai Khan, the second son of Genghis Khan. Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained a strong and united kingdom, known as theGolden Horde.[32]
Timurid period
One tribal chieftain,Timur (Tamerlane),[33] emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Transoxiana. Although he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan, Timur became thede facto ruler of Transoxiana and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia,Iran, theCaucasus,Mesopotamia,Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of theAral Sea. He also invaded Russia before dying during an invasion ofChina in 1405.[32] Timur was also known for his extreme brutality and his conquests were accompanied bygenocidal massacres in the cities he occupied.[34]
Timur initiated the last flowering of Transoxiana by gathering together numerous artisans and scholars from the vast lands he had conquered into his capital, Samarkand, thus imbuing his empire with a rich Perso-Islamic culture. During his reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction masterpieces were undertaken in Samarkand and other population centres.[35]
Tamerlane also established an exchange of medical discoveries and patronised physicians, scientists and artists from the neighbouring regions such as India;[36] his grandsonUlugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of theChaghatai dialect, became a literary language in its own right in Transoxiana, although the Timurids were Persianate in culture. The greatest Chaghataid writer,Ali-Shir Nava'i, was active in the city ofHerat (now in northwestern Afghanistan) in the second half of the 15th century.[32]
Areas of three Uzbek Polities ruled in Central Asia in the middle of the 19th century
The Timurid state quickly split in half after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501, the Uzbek forces began a wholesale invasion of Transoxiana.[32] Theslave trade in theEmirate of Bukhara became prominent and was firmly established at this time.[37] The Khanate of Bukhara was eventually invaded by the foreign government of Persia in 1510, and then became a part of the Persian empire of the day.
In the 19th century, theRussian Empire began to expand and spread intoCentral Asia. There were 210,306 Russians living in Uzbekistan in 1912.[38] The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to theAnglo-Russian Convention of 1907. A second, less intensive phase followed theBolshevik Revolution of 1917. At the start of the 19th century, there were some 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) separatingBritish India and the outlying regions ofTsarist Russia. Much of the land between was unmapped. In the early 1890s,Sven Hedin passed through Uzbekistan, during his first expedition.
By the beginning of 1920, Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and, despite some earlyresistance to theBolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of Central Asia became a part of theSoviet Union. On 27 October 1924, theUzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created. From 1941 to 1945, duringWorld War II, 1,433,230 people from Uzbekistan fought in theRed Army againstNazi Germany. As many as 263,005 Uzbek soldiers died in the battlefields of theEastern Front, and 32,670 went missing in action.[39]
On 20 June 1990, Uzbekistan declared its state sovereignty. On 31 August 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence after thefailed coup attempt in Moscow. 1 September was proclaimed National Independence Day. The Soviet Union wasdissolved on 26 December of that year.Islam Karimov, previously first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan since 1989, was elected president of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic in 1990. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, he was elected president of independent Uzbekistan.[40] An authoritarian ruler, Karimov died in September 2016.[41] He was replaced by his long-timePrime Minister,Shavkat Mirziyoyev, on 14 December of the same year.[42] On 6 November 2021, Mirziyoyev was sworn into his second term in office, after gaining a landslide victory in presidentialelection.[43][44]
Uzbekistan has an area of 448,978 square kilometres (173,351 sq mi).[7] It is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 40th by population.[45] Among theCIS countries, it is the fourth largest by area and the second largest by population.[46]
Uzbekistan lies between latitudes37° and46° N, and longitudes56° and74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres (885 mi) from west to east and 930 kilometres (580 mi) from north to south. BorderingKazakhstan and theAralkum Desert (formerAral Sea) to the north and northwest,Turkmenistan andAfghanistan to the southwest,Tajikistan to the southeast, andKyrgyzstan to the northeast, Uzbekistan is one of the largestCentral Asian states and the only Central Asian state to border all the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border (less than 150 km or 93 mi) withAfghanistan to the south.
Uzbekistan is a hot, dry,landlocked country. It is one of twodoubly landlocked countries in the world – that is, a landlocked country completely surrounded by other landlocked countries.[47][48][49] The second doubly landlocked country isLiechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series ofendorheic basins, none of its rivers lead to the sea. Less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. TheAral Sea, which has been largely desiccated by cotton production established in the Soviet era, is considered one of the world's worst environmental disasters.[50] The rest is the vastKyzylkum Desert and mountains.
Köppen climate classification
According to a 1981 Soviet study, the highest point in Uzbekistan is Khazret Sultan at 4,643 metres (15,233 ft) above sea level, in the southern part of theGissar Range in theSurxondaryo Region on the border with Tajikistan, just northwest ofDushanbe (formerly called Peak of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party).[46]
The climate in Uzbekistan is continental, with littleprecipitation expected annually (100–200 millimetres, or 3.9–7.9 inches). The average summer hightemperature tends to be 40 °C(104 °F), while the average winter low temperature is around −23 °C(−9 °F).[51]
Cotton picking nearKyzyl-Kala,KarakalpakstanUzbekistan is the seventh most water stressed country in the world.
Uzbekistan has a rich and diverse natural environment. However, decades ofSoviet policies in pursuit of greatercotton production have resulted in a catastrophic scenario with the agricultural industry being the main contributor to the pollution and devastation of both air and water in the country.[53]
TheAral Sea was once the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, humidifying the surrounding air and irrigating the arid land.[54] Since the 1960s, when the overuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to about 10% of its former area and divided into parts, with only the southern part of the narrow western lobe of theSouth Aral Sea remaining permanently in Uzbekistan. Much of the water was and continues to be used for theirrigation of cotton fields,[55] a crop requiring a large amount of water to grow.[56]
Due to the Aral Sea loss, high salinity and contamination of the soil withheavy elements are especially widespread inKarakalpakstan, the region of Uzbekistan adjacent to the Aral Sea. The bulk of the nation's water resources is used for farming, which accounts for nearly 84% of the water use and contributes to highsoil salinity. Heavy use ofpesticides andfertilisers for cotton growing further aggravatessoil contamination.[51]
Map of flooded areas as a result of the collapse of theSardoba Reservoir
According to the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme),climate risk management in Uzbekistan should consider its ecological safety.[57]
Numerous oil and gas deposits have been discovered in the south of the country.[58][59]
A dam collapse atSardoba Reservoir in May 2020 flooded 35,000 hectares of land. Six people died and 111,000 evacuated with recovery estimates over 1.5 trillion som. The devastation extended into areas inside neighbouringKazakhstan.[61][62]
After Uzbekistan declared independence from theSoviet Union in 1991, an election was held, andIslam Karimov was elected as thefirst President of Uzbekistan on 29 December 1991. The elections of theOliy Majlis (Parliament or Supreme Assembly) were held under a resolution adopted by the 16th Supreme Soviet in 1994. In that year, the Supreme Soviet was replaced by the Oliy Majlis. The third elections for the bicameral 150-member Oliy Majlis, the Legislative Chamber, and the 100-member Senate for five-year terms, were held on 27 December 2009. The second elections were held from December 2004 to January 2005. The Oliy Majlis was unicameral up to 2004. Its size increased from 69 deputies (members) in 1994 to 120 in 2004–05 and currently stands at 150.
Islam Karimov’s first presidential term was extended to 2000 through a referendum. He was subsequently re-elected in 2000, 2007, and 2015, each time winning over 90% of the vote. However, most international observers refused to participate in the electoral process and dismissed the results as failing to meet democratic standards.
A 2002 referendum introduced abicameral parliament, consisting of a lower house (theOliy Majlis) and an upper house (theSenate), with members of the lower house serving as full-time legislators. Elections for the new parliament were held on 26 December 2002.
Following Karimov’s death on 2 September 2016, the Oliy Majlis appointed Prime Minister Shavkat Mirziyoyev as interim president.[63] While the constitution designated Senate ChairmanNigmatilla Yuldashev as the rightful successor, he declined the position, citing Mirziyoyev’s extensive experience. In the December 2016 presidential election, Mirziyoyev was officially elected with 88.6% of the vote and was sworn in on 14 December.[64] Deputy Prime MinisterAbdulla Aripov then succeeded him as prime minister.[65]
As president, Mirziyoyev replaced most of Karimov’s officials and called for the inclusion of younger, patriotic individuals in government. Over time, he distanced himself from Karimov’s policies, visiting various regions and cities to oversee reforms.Analysts andWestern media have compared his leadership style to that ofDeng Xiaoping andMikhail Gorbachev, describing his tenure as a potential "Uzbek Spring".[66][67][18]
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Uzbekistan performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in local democracy, judicial independence and free political parties.[68][69][70] TheV-Dem Democracy Indices described Uzbekistan as a closedautocracy in 2024.[71]
Uzbekistan joined theCommonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. However, it is opposed to reintegration and withdrew from the CIS collective security arrangement in 1999. Since that time, Uzbekistan has participated in the CIS peacekeeping force in Tajikistan and in UN-organised groups to help resolve the Tajikistan and Afghanistan conflicts, both of which it sees as posing threats to its own stability.
Previously close to Washington (which gave Uzbekistan half a billion dollars in aid in 2004, about a quarter of its military budget), the government of Uzbekistan has recently restricted American military use of the airbase atKarshi-Khanabad for air operations in neighbouring Afghanistan.[72] Uzbekistan was an active supporter of U.S. efforts against worldwide terrorism.[73]
The relationship between Uzbekistan and the United States began to deteriorate after the so-called "colour revolutions" inGeorgia and Ukraine (and to a lesser extentKyrgyzstan). When the U.S. joined in a call for an independent international investigation of the bloody events atAndijan, the relationship further declined, and President Islam Karimov changed the political alignment of the country to bring it closer to Russia and China.
In late July 2005, the government of Uzbekistan ordered the United States to vacate an airbase in Karshi-Kanabad (near Uzbekistan's border with Afghanistan) within 180 days.[74] Karimov had offered use of the base to the U.S. shortly after9/11. It is also believed by some Uzbeks that the protests in Andijan were brought about by the UK and U.S. influences in the area of Andijan.[74] This is another reason for the hostility between Uzbekistan and the West.
Leaders present at theSCO summit inSamarkand, Uzbekistan, in 2022
Uzbekistan is also a member of theShanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and hosts the SCO's Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent. Uzbekistan joined the newCentral Asian Cooperation Organisation (CACO) in 2002. The CACO consists of Uzbekistan,Tajikistan,Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is a founding member of, and remains involved in, theCentral Asian Union, formed with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and joined in March 1998 by Tajikistan.
In December 1994 Uzbekistan applied for theWorld Trade Organization membership and received an observer status to start the accession process. The Working Party on the Accession of Uzbekistan to the WTO held its fourth meeting on 7 July 2020 — almost 15 years after its last formal meeting.[75]
In September 2006,UNESCO presented Islam Karimov an award for Uzbekistan's preservation of its rich culture and traditions.[76] Despite criticism, this seems to be a sign of improving relationships between Uzbekistan and the West.
The month of October 2006 also saw a decrease in the isolation of Uzbekistan from the West. TheEU announced that it was planning to send a delegation to Uzbekistan to talk about human rights and liberties, after a long period of hostile relations between the two. Although it is equivocal about whether the official or unofficial version of theAndijan Massacre is true, the EU is evidently willing to ease its economic sanctions against Uzbekistan. Nevertheless, it is generally assumed among Uzbekistan's population that the government will stand firm in maintaining its close ties with theRussian Federation and in its theory that the 2004–2005 protests in Uzbekistan were promoted by the US and UK.
In January 2008,Lola Karimova-Tillyaeva was appointed to her current role as Uzbekistan's ambassador toUNESCO. Karimova-Tillyaeva and her team have been instrumental in promoting inter-cultural dialogue by increasing European society's awareness of Uzbekistan's cultural and historical heritage.
Non-governmental human rights organisations, such asIHF,Human Rights Watch,Amnesty International, as well as theUnited States Department of State and theCouncil of the European Union, characterise Uzbekistan as "an authoritarian state with limited civil rights"[16] and express profound concern about "wide-scale violation of virtually all basic human rights".[77]According to the reports, the most widespread violations include torture, arbitrary arrests, and various restrictions on freedoms, such as those of religion, speech, press, association, and assembly. It has also been reported that forced sterilisation of rural Uzbek women has been sanctioned by the government.[78][79]The reports maintain that the violations are most often committed against members of religious organisations, independent journalists, human rights activists and political activists, including members of the banned opposition parties. As of 2015, reports on violations on human rights in Uzbekistan indicated that violations were still going on without any improvement.[80] TheFreedom House has consistently ranked Uzbekistan near the bottom of its Freedom in the World ranking since the country's founding in 1991. In the 2018 report, Uzbekistan was one of the 11 worst countries forPolitical Rights andCivil Liberties.[81]
The2005 civil unrest in Uzbekistan, which resulted in several hundred people being killed, is viewed by many as a landmark event in the history of human rights abuse in Uzbekistan.[82][83][84]Concern has been expressed and requests for an independent investigation of the events has been made by the United States,[85] the European Union,[86] theUnited Nations,[87] the OSCE Chairman-in-Office and the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights.[88]
The government of Uzbekistan is accused of unlawful termination of human life and of denying its citizensfreedom of assembly and freedom of expression. The government vehemently rebuffs the accusations, maintaining that it merely conducted an anti-terrorist operation, exercising only necessary force.[89] In addition, some officials claim that "aninformation war on Uzbekistan has been declared" and the human rights violations in Andijan are invented by the enemies of Uzbekistan as a convenient pretext for intervention in the country's internal affairs.[90] Male and femalehomosexuality is illegal in Uzbekistan.[91] Punishment ranges from a fine to 3 years in prison.[92]
There are an estimated 1.2 million modern slaves in Uzbekistan,[93] most work in the cotton industry. The government allegedly forces state employees to pick cotton in the autumn months.[94] World Bank loans have been connected to projects that use child labour and forced labour practices in the cotton industry.[95]
Recent developments
Karimov died in 2016 and his successor Shavkat Mirziyoyev is considered by most to be pursuing a less autocratic path by increasing co-operation with human rights NGOs,[96][97] scheduling Soviet-styleexit visas to be abolished in 2019,[98] and reducing sentences for certain misdemeanor offences.[99]
The Amnesty International report on the country for 2017–2018 found some remnant repressive measures and lack of rule of law in eradicating modern slavery.[100] In February 2020, the United Nations announced that Uzbekistan had made "major progress" on stamping out forced labour in its cotton harvest as 94% of pickers worked voluntarily.[101]
Uzbekistan is divided into twelveregions (viloyatlar, singularviloyat, compound nounviloyati e.g.,Toshkent viloyati,Samarqand viloyati, etc.), oneautonomous republic (respublika, compound nounrespublikasi e.g.Qoraqalpogʻiston Muxtor Respublikasi,Karakalpakstan Autonomous Republic, etc.), and oneindependent city (shahar, compound nounshahri, e.g.,Toshkent shahri,Tashkent City). Names are given below inUzbek, andKarakalpak languages when applicable, although numerous variations of the transliterations of each name exist.
Republic of Karakalpakstan Karakalpak:Қарақалпақстан Республикасы,Qaraqalpaqstan Respublikasıʻ Uzbek:Қорақалпоғистон Республикаси,Qoraqalpogʻiston Respublikasi
Uzbekistan mines 80 tons of gold annually, seventh in the world. In 2015, Uzbekistan's gold production was 102 metric tons.[108] Uzbekistan's copper deposits rank tenth in the world and its uranium deposits twelfth. The country's uranium production ranks seventh globally.[109][110][111] The Uzbek national gas company,Uzbekneftegaz, ranks 11th in the world in natural gas production with an annual output of 60 to 70 billion cubic metres (2.1–2.5 trillion cubic feet). The country has significant untapped reserves of oil and gas: there are 194 deposits of hydrocarbons in Uzbekistan, including 98 condensate and natural gas deposits and 96 gas condensate deposits.[112][113]
Along with manyCommonwealth of Independent States or CIS economies, Uzbekistan's economy declined during the first years of transition and then recovered after 1995, as the cumulative effect of policy reforms began to be felt.[115] It has shown robust growth, rising by 4% per year between 1998 and 2003 and accelerating thereafter to 7%–8% per year. According to IMF estimates,[116] the GDP in 2008 will be almost double its value in 1995 (in constant prices). Since 2003, annual inflation rates varied, reaching almost 40% in 2010 and less than 20% in 2019.[117]
Uzbekistan has a GNI per capita of US$2,020 in 2018 dollars, resulting in aPPP equivalent of US$7,230.[118] Economic production is concentrated in commodities. In 2011, Uzbekistan was the world's seventh-largest producer and fifth-largest exporter ofcotton[119] as well as the seventh-largest world producer of gold. It is also a regionally significant producer of natural gas, coal, copper, oil, silver and uranium.[120]
Agriculture employs 27% of Uzbekistan's labour force and contributes 17.4% of its GDP (2012 data).[46] Cultivable land is 4.4 million hectares, or about 10% of Uzbekistan's total area. While official unemployment is very low, underemployment – especially in rural areas – is estimated to be at least 20%.[121]Cotton production in Uzbekistan is important to the national economy of the country.[55] Uzbek cotton is even used to make banknotes in South Korea.[122] Uzbek cotton exports have become the cause of a scandal related to the Russian-Ukrainian war and sanctions imposed on the Russian military industry. According to the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP), Vlast, and iStories, after 24 February 2022, Uzbekistan significantly increased its exports of cotton pulp and nitrocellulose to Russia, key components for the manufacture of explosives and gunpowder. According to Ekonomichna Pravda, at least two large Uzbek exporters have been working with Russian military-industrial complex enterprises. Documents from the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation confirm that at least three Russian companies - Bina Group, Khimtrade, and Lenakhim - sold imported cotton pulp in Russia to military plants under US sanctions.[123][124][125]
The country has a considerable production of carrots as well. The use of child labour in Uzbekistan has led several companies, including Tesco,[126] C&A,[127] Marks & Spencer, Gap, and H&M, to boycott Uzbek cotton.[128]
Facing a multitude of economic challenges upon acquiring independence, the government adopted an evolutionary reform strategy, with an emphasis on state control, reduction of imports and self-sufficiency in energy. Since 1994, the state-controlled media have repeatedly proclaimed the success of this "Uzbekistan Economic Model"[129] and suggested that it is a unique example of a smooth transition to the market economy while avoiding shock, pauperism and stagnation. As of 2019, Uzbekistan's economy is one of the most diversified in Central Asia which makes the country an attractive economic partner for China.[130]
The gradualist reform strategy has involved postponing significant macroeconomic and structural reforms. The state in the hands of thebureaucracy has remained a dominant influence in the economy. Corruption permeates the society and grows more rampant over time.[131] A February 2006 report by theInternational Crisis Group suggests that revenues earned from key exports, especiallycotton,gold,maize and increasingly gas, are distributed among a very small circle of the ruling elite, with little or no benefit for the populace at large.[132] The early-2010s high-profile corruption scandals involving government contracts and large international companies, notablyTeliaSonera, have shown that businesses are particularly vulnerable to corruption when operating in Uzbekistan.[133]
According to theEconomist Intelligence Unit, "the government is hostile to allowing the development of an independent private sector, over which it would have no control".[134]
The economic policies have repelled foreign investment, which is the lowest per capita in the CIS.[135] For years, the largest barrier to foreign companies entering the Uzbekistan market has been the difficulty of converting currency. In 2003 the government accepted the obligations of Article VIII under theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)[136] providing for full currency convertibility. However, strict currency controls and the tightening of borders have lessened the effect of this measure.
Uzbekistan experienced rampantinflation of around 1000% per year immediately after independence (1992–1994). Stabilisation efforts implemented with guidance from the IMF[137] paid off. The inflation rates were brought down to 50% in 1997 and then to 22% in 2002. Since 2003 annual inflation rates averaged less than 10%.[116] Tight economic policies in 2004 resulted in a drastic reduction of inflation to 3.8% (although alternative estimates based on the price of a truemarket basket put it at 15%).[138] The inflation rates moved up to 6.9% in 2006 and 7.6% in 2007 but have remained in the single-digit range.[139]
The government of Uzbekistan restricts foreign imports in many ways, including high import duties. Excise taxes are applied in a highly discriminatory manner to protect locally produced goods,[140] although the excises taxes were removed for foreign cars in 2020.[141] Official tariffs are combined with unofficial, discriminatory charges resulting in total charges amounting to as much as 100 to 150% of the actual value of the product, making imported products virtually unaffordable.[142]Import substitution is an officially declared policy and the government proudly reports a reduction by a factor of two in the volume of consumer goods imported. A number of CIS countries are officially exempt from Uzbekistan import duties. Uzbekistan has a Bilateral Investment Treaty with fifty other countries.[143]
TheRepublican Stock Exchange (RSE) opened in 1994. The stocks of all Uzbek joint stock companies (around 1,250) are traded on RSE. The number of listed companies as of January 2013 exceeds 110. Securities market volume reached 2 trillion in 2012, and the number is rapidly growing due to the rising interest by companies of attracting necessary resources through the capital market. According to Central Depository as of January 2013 par value of outstanding shares of Uzbek emitters exceeded 9 trillion.[citation needed]
Thanks in part to the recovery of world market prices of gold and cotton (the country's key export commodities), expanded natural gas and some manufacturing exports, and increasing labour migrant transfers, the current account turned into a large surplus (between 9% and 11% of GDP from 2003 to 2005). In 2018, foreign exchange reserves, including gold, totalled around US$25 billion.[144]
Foreign exchange reserves amounted in 2010 to US$13 billion.[145]
Uzbekistan is predicted to be one of the fastest-growing economies in the world (top 26) in future decades, according to a survey by global bank HSBC.[146]Uzbekistan was ranked 79th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025.[147][148]
Newlywed couples visitTamerlane's statues to receive wedding blessings
As of 2022, Uzbekistan has the largest population of countries in Central Asia. Its 36 million citizens comprise nearly half the region's total population.[149] The population of Uzbekistan is very young though it is slowly aging. 23.1% of its people are younger than 16 (2020 estimate).[121] According to official sources,Uzbeks comprise a majority (84.5%) of the total population. Other ethnic groups includeTajiks 4.8%,Kazakhs 2.4%,Karakalpaks 2.2%,Russians 2.1% andTatars 0.5% as of 2021.[3]
Ethnic composition of the population of Uzbekistan in 2021:
Uzbeks, 29.2 million people, or 84.4% of the population;
There is some controversy about the percentage of the Tajik population. While official state numbers from Uzbekistan put the number around 5%, the number is said to be an understatement and some Western scholars put the number up to 10%–20%.[151][152][153][154] Uzbekistan has anethnic Korean population that wasforcibly relocated to the region by Stalin from theSoviet Far East in 1937–1938. There are also small groups ofArmenians in Uzbekistan, mostly in Tashkent and Samarkand.
The nation is 96% Muslim (mostlySunni, with aShi'a minority), 2.3%Eastern Orthodox and 1.7% other faiths. The U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004 reports that 0.2% of the population areBuddhist (these being ethnic Koreans).Bukharan Jews have lived in Central Asia, mostly in Uzbekistan, for thousands of years. There were 94,900Jews in Uzbekistan in 1989[155] (about 0.5% of the population according to the1989 census), but since thedissolution of the Soviet Union, most Central Asian Jews left the region for theUnited States,Germany, orIsrael. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remained in Uzbekistan in 2007 and they live primarily in Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bukhara.[156]
Russians in Uzbekistan represented 5.5% of the total population in 1989. During the Soviet period, Russians andUkrainians constituted more than half the population ofTashkent.[157] The country counted nearly 1.5 million Russians, 12.5% of the population, in the 1970 census.[158] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, significant emigration of ethnic Russians has taken place, mostly for economic reasons.[159]
Almost 10% of Uzbekistan's labour force works abroad, mostly in Russia andKazakhstan.[164][165]
Nukus Art Museum named after Savicky.
Uzbekistan has a 100% literacy rate among adults older than 15 (2019 estimate).[166]
Life expectancy in Uzbekistan is 75 years average. 72 years among men and 78 years among women.[167]
President Shavkat Mirziyoyev signed a law in March 2020 that demands a national census take place at least every 10 years.[168] The population has not been officially counted in over 30 years. In November 2020, the first census was cancelled due to concerns about coronavirus and the sheer size of the task. It now has been scheduled for 2025−2026, with the results expected to be published in 2027.[169]
Uzbekistan is a secular country and Article 61 of its constitution states that religious organisations and associations shall be separated from the state and equal before law. The state shall not interfere in the activity of religious associations.[170]Islam is the dominant religion in Uzbekistan, although Soviet power (1924–1991) discouraged the expression of religious belief, and it was repressed during its existence as aSoviet Republic. The CIA Factbook (2004) estimates thatMuslims constitute 88% of the population, while 9% of the population followRussian Orthodox Christianity, 3% other religions and non-religious,[171] while a 2020Pew Research projection stated that Uzbekistan's population is 96.7% Muslim andChristians (mostlyRussian Orthodox Christians) comprised 2.3% of the population (630,000).[172] An estimated 93,000Jews lived in the country in the early 1990s.[173]In addition, there are about 7,400 Zoroastrians left in Uzbekistan, mostly in Tajik areas likeKhojand.[174]
Despite the predominance of Islam and its rich history in the country, the practice of the faith is far from monolithic. Uzbeks have practiced many versions of Islam. The conflict of Islamic tradition with various agendas ofreform orsecularisation throughout the 20th century has left a wide variety of Islamic practices inCentral Asia.[173]
The end of Soviet control in Uzbekistan in 1991 did not bring an immediate upsurge of religion-associatedfundamentalism, as many had predicted, but rather a gradual re-acquaintance with the precepts of the Islamic faith and a gradual resurgence ofIslam in the country.[175] However, since 2015 there has been a slight increase inIslamist activity, with small organisations such as theIslamic Movement of Uzbekistan declaring allegiance toDaesh and contributing fighters abroad,[176] although the terror threat in Uzbekistan itself remains low.[177] (SeeTerrorism in Uzbekistan).
The Jewish community in the Uzbek lands lived for centuries, with occasional hardships during the reigns of certain rulers. During the rule ofTamerlane in the 14th century,Jews contributed greatly to his efforts to rebuildSamarkand, and a great Jewish centre was established there.[178]
Bukharan Jews, c. 1899
After the area came under Russian rule in 1868, Jews were granted equal rights with the local Muslim population.[178] In that period some 50,000 Jews lived in Samarkand and 20,000 inBukhara.[178]
After the Russian revolutions in 1917 and the establishment of the Soviet regime, Jewish religious life (as with all religions) became restricted. By 1935 only one synagogue out of 30 remained in Samarkand. Similarly only one synagogue was operational in Bukhara and in Tashkent. Young children were not allowed to enter synagogues. In spite of this underground Jewish community life continued during the Soviet era.[178]
By 1970 there were 103,000 Jews registered in theUzbek SSR.[178] Since the 1980s most of the Jews of Uzbekistan emigrated to Israel or to the United States of America.[179] A small community of several thousand remained in the country as of 2013[update]: some 7,000 lived in Tashkent, 3,000 in Bukhara and 700 in Samarkand.[180]
The Uzbek language is one of theTurkic languages. It belongs to theKarluk branch of the Turkic language family, which also includes theUyghur language. It is the only official national language and since 1992 is officially written in theLatin alphabet.[181]
Before the 1920s, the written language of Uzbeks was called Turki (known to Western scholars asChagatai) and used theNastaʿlīq script. In 1926 the Latin alphabet was introduced and went through several revisions throughout the 1930s. Finally, in 1940, theCyrillic alphabet was introduced by Soviet authorities and was used until the fall of Soviet Union. In 1993 Uzbekistan shifted back to the Latin script (Uzbek alphabet), which was modified in 1996 and is being taught in schools since 2000. Educational establishments teach only the Latin notation. At the same time, the Cyrillic notation is common among the older generation.[182] Even though the Cyrillic notation of Uzbek has now been abolished for official documents, it is still used by a number of some newspapers and websites.
Karakalpak, belonging to theKipchak branch of the Turkic language family and thus closer toKazakh, is spoken by half a million people, primarily in theRepublic of Karakalpakstan, and has an official status in that territory.
Although theRussian language is not an official language in the country, it is widely used in many fields as a second official de-facto language. Digital information from the government is bilingual.[183][184][185] The country is also home to approximately one million native Russian speakers. Signs throughout the country are both in Uzbek and Russian.[186][187][188][189][190]
In April 2020, a draft bill was introduced in Uzbekistan to regulate the exclusive use of the Uzbek language in government affairs. Under this legislation, government workers could incur fines for doing work in languages other than Uzbek. Though unsuccessful, it was met with criticism by theRussian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokeswoman,Maria Zakharova.[191] In response, a group of Uzbek intellectuals signed an open letter arguing for the instatement of Russian as an official language alongside Uzbek, citing historical ties, the large Russian-speaking population in Uzbekistan, and the usefulness of Russian in higher education, together with the argument that only Russian language opened the communication with the other peoples of the region and the literature of the outside world.[192] The Cyrillic Uzbek alphabet is still widely used, and 862 Russian-language schools are functioning in the country, compared to 1,100 in 1991, despite the fact that the Russian minority there has decreased from 1,7 million in 1990 to nearly 700,000 in 2022. In business, the Russian language outpaces Uzbek. Many Uzbeks in urban areas, as of 2019, are feeling more comfortable to speak in Russian, while Uzbek is more present in the agricultural regions. Uzbek did not manage to become a state language, and many blame theintelligentsia.[193]
On September 15, 2020, citizenship amendments came into force that required foreigners to have proficiency in the Uzbek language before becoming citizens.[194]
According to the official source report, as of 10 March 2008, the number of cellular phone users in Uzbekistan reached 7 million, up from 3.7 million on 1 July 2007.[195] Mobile users in 2017 were more than 24 million.[196] The largest mobile operator in terms of number of subscribers is MTS-Uzbekistan (formerUzdunrobita and part of Russian Mobile TeleSystems) and it is followed by Beeline (part of Russia's Beeline) and UCell (ex Coscom) (originally part of the U.S. MCT Corp., now a subsidiary of the Nordic/Baltic telecommunication companyTeliaSonera AB).[197]
As of 2019, the estimated number of internet users was more than 22 million[198] or about 52% of the population.[199]
The press in Uzbekistan practicesself-censorship and foreign journalists have been gradually expelled from the country since theAndijan massacre of 2005 when government troops fired into crowds of protesters killing 187 according to official reports and estimates of several hundred by unofficial and witness accounts.[201]
Central Station of TashkentThe Afrosiyob high-speed train
Tashkent, the nation's capital and largest city, has a four-linemetro built in 1977, and expanded in 2001 after ten years' independence from theSoviet Union. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan are currently the only two countries in Central Asia with a subway system. It is promoted as one of the cleanest systems in the former Soviet Union.[202] The stations are exceedingly ornate. For example, the stationKosmonavtlar built in 1984 is decorated using aspace travel theme to recognise the achievements of humankind in space exploration and to commemorate the role ofVladimir Dzhanibekov, the Sovietcosmonaut of Uzbek origin. A statue of Vladimir Dzhanibekov stands near a station entrance.
There are government-operated trams and buses running across the city. There are also many taxis, registered and unregistered. Uzbekistan has plants that produce modern cars. The car production is supported by the government and the Korean auto companyDaewoo. In May 2007UzDaewooAuto, the car maker, signed a strategic agreement with General Motors-Daewoo Auto and Technology (GMDAT, seeGM Uzbekistan also).[203] The government bought a stake in Turkey's Koc inSamKochAvto, a producer of small buses and lorries. Afterward, it signed an agreement withIsuzu Motors of Japan to produce Isuzu buses and lorries.[204]
Train links connect many towns in Uzbekistan, as well as neighbouring former republics of the Soviet Union. Moreover, after independence two fast-running train systems were established. Uzbekistan launched the firsthigh-speed railway in Central Asia in September 2011 betweenTashkent andSamarqand. The new high-speed electric trainTalgo 250, calledAfrosiyob, was manufactured byPatentes Talgo S.L. (Spain) and took its first trip from Tashkent to Samarkand on 26 August 2011.[205]
A large aircraft manufacturing plant was built during the Soviet era –Tashkent Chkalov Aviation Manufacturing Plant or ТАПОиЧ in Russian. The plant originated during World War II, when production facilities were evacuated south and east to avoid capture by advancing Nazi forces. Until the late 1980s, the plant was one of the leading aeroplane production centres in the USSR. With dissolution of the Soviet Union, its manufacturing equipment became outdated; most of the workers were laid off. Now it produces only a few planes a year, but with interest from Russian companies growing, there are rumours of production-enhancement plans.
Civil Aviation
After the declaration of independence of the Republic of Uzbekistan, in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated January 28, 1992, the National AirlineUzbekistan Airways was created on the basis of the Civil Aviation Department of Uzbekistan, which was under the jurisdiction of the former Ministry ofCivil aviation of the Union. Air transport is one of the leading sectors of the economy of Uzbekistan, serves the development of international, economic, diplomatic, cultural ties of the country with the outside world.[206] InTashkent,Nukus,Samarkand,Bukhara,Urgench,Termez,Karshi,Namangan,Fergana,Navoi there are airports equipped with modern equipment.Tashkent International Airport is the largest international airport in theCentral Asian region. The airports ofBukhara,Samarkand,Urgenchalso have international status. The National AirlineUzbekistan Airways regularly performs 20 international flights. 44 representative offices have been opened in the cities ofEurope,America,Southeast Asia and theCIS countries.[207] Over the years of independence, the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan has allocated 1 billion 200 million dollars to theaviation industry. Investments in the amount of US dollars were made and a developed modern infrastructure was built. Allinternational flights are carried out onBoeing 767/757, A-310, U-85 aircraft. The national airlineUzbekistan Airways cooperates with large European companiesAirbus Industry, American companiesBoeing, Russian design bureau Ilyushin, German and French firms in various fields.
Uzbek troops during a cooperative operation exercise
With close to 65,000 servicemen, Uzbekistan possesses the largest armed forces in Central Asia. The military structure is largely inherited from theTurkestan Military District of theSoviet Army.[208] The Uzbek Armed Forces' equipment is standard, mostly consisting of post-Soviet inheritance and newly crafted Russian and some American equipment.
The government has accepted the arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union, acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (as a non-nuclear state), and supported an active programme by the U.S.Defence Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) in western Uzbekistan (Nukus andVozrozhdeniye Island). The Government of Uzbekistan spends about 3.7% of GDP on the military but has received a growing infusion of Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and other security assistance funds since 1998.
Following 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., Uzbekistan approved theU.S. Central Command's request for access to an air base, theKarshi-Khanabad airfield, in southern Uzbekistan. However, Uzbekistan demanded that the U.S. withdraw from the airbases after theAndijan massacre and the U.S. reaction to this massacre. The last US troops left Uzbekistan in November 2005.[209] In 2020, it was revealed that the former US base was contaminated with radioactive materials which may have resulted in unusually high cancer rates in US personnel stationed there. Yet the government of Uzbekistan has denied this statement claiming that there has never been such a case.[210]
Uzbekistan has a wide mix of ethnic groups and cultures, with theUzbek being the majority group. In 1995 about 71% of Uzbekistan's population was Uzbek. The chief minority groups were Russians (8%),Tajiks (3–4.7%),[151][152][153][154]Kazakhs (4%),Tatars (2.5%) andKarakalpaks (2%). It is said, however, that non-Uzbeks decline as Russians and other minority groups slowly leave and Uzbeks return from other parts of the formerSoviet Union.
Embroidery from Uzbekistan
When Uzbekistan gained independence in 1991, there was concern thatMuslim fundamentalism would spread across the region.[212] The expectation was that a country long denied freedom of religious practice would undergo a very rapid increase in the expression of its dominant faith.
According to a 2009 Pew Research report, Uzbekistan's population is 96.3% Muslim; around 54% identifies as non-denominational Muslim, 18% as Sunni and 1% as Shia. Furthermore, 11% say they belong to a Sufi order.[213]
Mass media in Uzbekistan have undergone significant transformations since the country's independence in 1991. The government initially maintained strict control over all forms of media, with the state owning almost allprint media and broadcasting outlets. However, since the early 2000s, there has been a gradual shift toward a more open media environment, although stateinfluence remains strong.[214][215]
Thegovernment controls major television channels, radio stations, and print publications, while the internet, though growing, faces censorship. Despite these constraints, the rise ofindependent media outlets and online platforms has slowly contributed to adiversification of information sources in the country. Nevertheless, journalists continue to face harassment, andself-censorship remains a significant issue in Uzbekistan's media landscape.[214]
Central Asian classical music is calledShashmaqam, which arose inBukhara in the late 16th century when that city was a regional capital.[216] Shashmaqam is closely related toAzerbaijaniMugam andUyghur muqam.[217] The name, which translates assix maqams, refers to the structure of the music, which contains six sections in six differentMusical modes, similar to classicalPersian traditional music. Interludes of spokenSufi poetry interrupt the music, typically beginning at a lower register and gradually ascending to a climax before calming back down to the beginning tone.
Uzbekistan has a highliteracy rate, with 99.9% of adults above the age of 15 being able to read and write.[218] However, with only 76% of the under-15 population currently enrolled in education(and only 20% of the 3–6 year olds attending pre-school), this figure may drop in the future. Students attend school Monday through Saturday during the school year, and education officially concludes at the end of the 11th grade.
Uzbekistan has encountered severe budget shortfalls in its education programme. The education law of 1992 began the process of theoretical reform, but the physical base has deteriorated and curriculum revision has been slow. Corruption within the education system is rampant, with students from wealthier families routinely bribing teachers and school executives to achieve high grades without attending school, or undertaking official examinations.[219]
In 2023,UNICEF supported theGovernment of Uzbekistan in developing a Roadmap for Education Reform, which aims to bring together the efforts of the government, development partners, teachers, parents, students and school communities to achieve the outlined strategic goals of transformative quality education.[220]
There are three Islamic institutes and an academy in Uzbekistan. They are Tashkent islamic institute, Mir Arab high school, School of hadith knowledge, International islamic academy of Uzbekistan.[citation needed]
Uzbek cuisine is influenced by localagriculture; since there is a great deal of grain farming in Uzbekistan, bread and noodles are of importance and Uzbek cuisine has been characterised as "noodle-rich".Mutton is a popular variety of meat due to the abundance ofsheep in the country and it is part of various Uzbek dishes.[222]
Uzbekistan's signature dish ispalov (orplov), a main course typically made with rice, meat, carrots, and onions, though it was not available to ordinary people until the 1930s.[citation needed] There are many regional variations of the dish. Often the fat found near the sheep tail,qurdiuq, is used. In the past, the cooking ofpalov was reserved for men, but the Soviets allowed women to cook it as well. Since then, it seems, the old gender roles have been restored.[223]
Other notable national dishes includeshurpa, a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton), and fresh vegetables;[224]norin andlaghman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course;[225]manti,chuchvara, andsomsa, stuffed pockets ofdough served as an appetiser or a main course;dimlama, a meat and vegetable stew; and variouskebabs, usually served as a main course.
Green tea is the national hot beverage consumed throughout the day;teahouses (chaikhanas) are of cultural importance.[226]Black tea is preferred inTashkent, but both green and black teas are consumed daily, without milk or sugar. Tea always accompanies a meal, but it is also a drink of hospitality that is automatically offered: green or black to every guest.[227]Ayran, a chilled yogurt drink, is popular in summer.[228]
The use of alcohol is less widespread than in the West, but wine is comparatively popular for a Muslim nation as Uzbekistan is largely secular. Uzbekistan has 14 wineries, the oldest and most famous being the Khovrenko Winery inSamarkand (established in 1927).[229] A number of vineyards in and around Tashkent are also growing in popularity, including Chateau Hamkor.[230]
Football is the most popular sport in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan's premier football league is theUzbek Super League, which has consisted of 16 teams since 2015. The current champions (2022) areFC Pakhtakor.Pakhtakor holds the record for the most Uzbekistan champion titles, having won the league ten times. Uzbekistan's football clubs regularly participate in theAFC Champions League and theAFC Cup.FC Nasaf Qarashi won theAFC Cup in 2011, the first international club cup for Uzbek football.[231][232]
Uzbekistan is home to former racing cyclistDjamolidine Abdoujaparov. Abdoujaparov won thegreen jersey points contest in theTour de France three times.[234] Abdoujaparov was a specialist at winning stages in tours or one-day races when the bunch orpeloton would finish together. He would often 'sprint' in the final kilometer and had a reputation as being dangerous in these bunch sprints as he would weave from side to side. This reputation earned him the nickname 'The Terror of Tashkent'.[235]
Wrestling
Artur Taymazov won Uzbekistan's inaugural wrestling medal at the2000 Summer Olympics, followed by three Olympic gold medals in Men's 120 kg in2004,2008 and2012. His 2008 gold was taken away in 2017 after a re-testing of samples from the Beijing Games and Taymazov was later stripped of his London 2012 Olympic gold medal after re-analysis of stored samples in 2019.[236] His London gold had made him the most successful freestyle competitor in Olympic history. He is the 60th athlete to be disqualified from the London Olympics after the event.[237]
Uzbekistan is the home of the InternationalKurash Association.[238] Kurash is an internationalised and modernised form of traditional Uzbek wrestling.
Boxing
Boxing is also one of the most popular sports in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan has four Olympic champions, winners of two silver and eight bronze medals at the Olympic Games in this sport. The country also has more medal winners in boxing at the Asian Games, theAsian Championships and theWorld. At the2016 Summer Olympics, Uzbekistanboxing team took first place in the medal standings in boxing, winning 3 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze medals. At the2024 Summer Olympics, the Uzbekistan boxing team performed even better: five uzbek boxerswere awarded gold medals.[239]
Ruslan Chagaev is a former professional boxer representing Uzbekistan in the WBA. He won the WBA champion title in 2007 after defeating Nikolai Valuev.[240] Chagaev defended his title twice before losing it to Vladimir Klitschko in 2009. Another young talented boxerHasanboy Dusmatov, light flyweight champion at the2016 Summer Olympics, won theVal Barker Trophy for the outstanding male boxer of Rio 2016 on 21 August 2016.[241] On 21 December 2016 Dusmatov was honoured with the AIBA Boxer of the Year award at a 70-year anniversary event ofAIBA.[242]
Ice Hockey
Humo Tashkent, a professional ice hockey team was established in 2019 with the aim of joiningKontinental Hockey League (KHL), a top level Eurasian league in the future.[243] Humo will join the second-tierSupreme Hockey League (VHL) for the 2019–20 season. Humo play their games at theHumo Ice Dome which cost over €175 million in construction; both the team and arena derive their name from the mythicalHuma bird, a symbol of happiness and freedom.[244]Uzbekistan Hockey Federation (UHF) began preparation for forming national ice hockey team in joiningIIHF competitions.[245]
Tennis
Tennis is a very popular sport in Uzbekistan, especially after Uzbekistan's sovereignty in 1991. Uzbekistan has its own Tennis Federation called the "UTF" (Uzbekistan Tennis Federation), created in 2002.[246] Uzbekistan also hosts an International WTA tennis tournament, the "Tashkent Open", held in Uzbekistan's capital city. This tournament has been held since 1999, and is played on outdoor hard courts. The most notable active players from Uzbekistan areDenis Istomin andAkgul Amanmuradova.[247]
Michael Kolganov, an Uzbek–born sprint canoer, was world champion and won an Olympic bronze in Sydney in the K1 500-meter in 2000 on behalf of Israel.[251] In 2009 and 2011, another Uzbek émigré, gymnastAlexander Shatilov, won a world bronze medal as anartistic gymnast in floor exercise, though he lives in and represents Israel in international competitions.[citation needed]Oksana Chusovitina has attended eight Olympic games, and won five world medals in artistic gymnastics including an Olympic gold. Some of those medals were won while representing Germany and the Soviet Union, though she currently competes for Uzbekistan.[252]
^"Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation".The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
^abKenzheakhmet Nurlan (2013).The Qazaq Khanate as Documented in Ming Dynasty Sources. p. 140.
^abA. H. Keane, A. Hingston Quiggin, A. C. Haddon, Man: Past and Present, p.312, Cambridge University Press, 2011, Google Books, quoted: "Who take their name from a mythical Uz-beg, Prince Uz (beg in Turki=a chief, or hereditary ruler)."
^MacLeod, Calum; Bradley Mayhew.Uzbekistan: Golden Road to Samarkand. p. 31.
^Davidovich, E.A. (1998). "The Karakhanids (Chapter 6)". In M.S. Asimov; Clifford Edmund Bosworth (eds.).History of civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. 4.1 The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, pt. 1, the historical, social and economic setting. UNESCO Publishing. pp. 119–44.ISBN92-3-103467-7.
^"Uzbekistan energy profile".IEA. International Energy Agency. April 2020.Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved22 March 2022.Uzbekistan is one of the world's largest natural gas producers, annually producing around 60 billion cubic metres (bcm)...
^"UZBEKISTAN - Gas Production & Reserves".The Free Library. Farlex Inc. 18 October 2004. Retrieved22 March 2022.The fields in Kokdumalak, Shurtan, Olan, Urgin and South-Tandirchi - all in south-western Uzbekistan - are being developed rapidly. Now they account for more than 90% of the country's output of gas and condensate.
^"State-Sponsored Homophobia".International Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association. 20 March 2019.Archived from the original on 8 February 2020. Retrieved18 August 2019.
^abcdCordell, Karl (1998)Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe, Routledge,ISBN0415173124, p. 201: "Consequently, the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajikis within and outside of the republic, Samarkand State University (SamGU) academic and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30% of the republic's 22 million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7% (Foltz 1996, p. 213; Carlisle 1995:88[incomplete short citation]).
^abcdJonson, Lena (1976)Tajikistan in the New Central Asia, I.B.Tauris,ISBN085771726X, p. 108: "According to official Uzbek statistics there are slightly over 1.7 million Tajiks in Uzbekistan or about 5% of the population. The unofficial figure is over 6 million Tajiks. They are concentrated in the Sukhandarya, Samarqand and Bukhara regions."
^Agtzidis, Vlasis (1991). "The Persecution of Pontic Greeks in the Soviet Union".Journal of Refugee Studies.4 (4):372–381.doi:10.1093/jrs/4.4.372.ISSN0951-6328.
^Anthony J. Liddicoat, "Uzbekistan", in Liddicoat and Andy Kirkpatrick, eds.,The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia (London: Routledge, 2019), 495.ISBN9781317354499
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