Before his predecessor, caliphUmar (r. 634–644) died in office, he appointed a committee of trustees to elect a successor. Uthman, who was then aged 68–71 years, was elected to succeed him and became the oldest person to hold such a high position. During his premiership, the Caliphate expanded further intoPersia and reached as far as the provinces ofKhorasan andTransoxiana in the East as well asIfriqiya and theIberian Peninsula in the West. Uthman institutedcentralized reforms in order to create a more cohesive administrative structure and fostered rapideconomic growth.
Uthman was born in theHejaz. The exact date is disputed; both 573 and 576 are indicated.[5] He was born to an affluent family of the powerful and wealthBanu Ummaya clan, itself a part of the largerBanu Abd Shams. His father,Affan ibn Abi al-As was of the Banu Ummaya, and his mother,Arwa bint Kurayz was of the Banu Abd Shams. Uthman had one sister, Amina.
Uthman is related to Muhammad through his mother, who was the first cousin of Muhammad and made Uthman his first cousin's son.
His father died at a young age while on acaravan travel, leaving Uthman with a large inheritance. He brilliantly invested the wealth in trade and became a highly successful merchant, making him one the wealthiest people of theQuraysh.[6]
On returning from a business trip toSyria in 611, Uthman learned of Muhammad's declared mission. After a discussion withAbu Bakr, Uthman decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr brought him to Muhammad to declare his faith. Uthman thus becameone of the earliest converts to Islam, followingAli,Zayd ibn Haritha,Abu Bakr and a few others. His conversion to Islam angered his uncle,Hakam ibn Abi Al-As, who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings.[7] He is listed as one of the twenty two Meccans at the dawn of Islam who knew how to write.[8]
Uthman and his wife,Ruqayya, migrated toAbyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in April 615, along with ten Muslim men and three women. Scores of Muslims joined them later.[9][10]: 235–236 As Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practice his profession as a trader and he continued to flourish.[11]
After four years, the news spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and this acceptance persuaded Uthman, Ruqayya and 39 Muslims to return. However, when they reached Mecca, they found that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false. Nevertheless, Uthman and Ruqayya re-settled in Mecca.[9]: 167–169 [10]: 238 Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia worked in his favour and his business prospered once again.[11]
In 622, Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, were among the third group of Muslims to migrate toMedina. Upon arrival, Uthman stayed with Abu Talha ibn Thabit before moving into the house he purchased a short time later. Uthman was one of the richest merchants of Mecca, with no need of financial help from hisAnsari brothers, as he had brought the considerable fortune he had amassed with him to Medina. Most Muslims of Medina were farmers with little interest in trade, andJews had conducted most trading in the town. Uthman realised there was a considerable commercial opportunity to promote trade among Muslims and soon established himself as a trader in Medina. With hard work and honesty, his business flourished, making him one of the richest men in Medina.[12] Two of Uthman's wives having been elder daughters of Muhammad andKhadija bint Khuwaylid, which earned him the honorific titleDhū al-Nurayn ("The Possessor of Two Lights").[13][14]
Across the Muslim world, Uthman is known by his honorific title "Ghani" that translates to "exceedingly generous" which was bestowed upon him for his remarkable donations towards helping those in need and for the cause of Islam.
WhenAli marriedFatima, Uthman bought Ali's shield for five hundreddirhams. Four hundred was set aside asmahr (dower) for Fatima's marriage, leaving a hundred for all other expenses. Later, Uthman presented the armour back to Ali as a wedding present.[15][16]
Uthman participated in all major battles which took place in the early period of Islam except forBadr and that too because the Prophet of Islam commanded him to stay back and tend his very sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of Muhammad, who later died from illness.[17] Regarding this, there is a hadith which states, "You (Uthman) will have the reward and the share of booty of a man who was present at Badr".[18]
Furthermore, during the campaigns of Ghatafan and Dhat al-Riqa the Prophet of Islam left Uthman in charge of Madinah when the Muslim army ventured out of the city.[19]
Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was due to him that Uthman had converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr was selected as the caliph, Uthman was the first person afterUmar to offer his allegiance. During theRidda wars (Wars of Apostasy), Uthman remained in Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman and Ibn Awf, saying that his successor was to be Umar.[25]
Umar, on his deathbed, formed a committee of six people, all from theMuhajirun (earlyMeccan converts), to choose the next caliph from amongst themselves.[26] This committee was:
According toYaqoubi history, Umar appointedAbu Talha Ansari to this task and said: If four people gave an opinion and two disagreed, behead those two, and if three agreed and three disagreed, the three people whom Abd al-Rahman is not among them, behead them, and if three days passed and they didn't reach an agreement on anyone, behead them all".[27][28][29]
Yaqoubi further adds that many negotiations took place in these three days and the result was hesitant between Ali and Uthman. Abd al-Rahman asked Ali: If we pledge allegiance to you, would you be willing to follow the Book of God (Quran) and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and behave in the manner of the two previous caliphs (Umar and Abu Bakr)? Ali's answer to Abd al-Rahman was: I will only follow the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger of God. Abd al-Rahman asked the same question to Uthman and Uthman answered positively and accepted all the conditions and therefore he became the caliph.[30]
In about 650, Uthman began noticing slight differences in recitations of theQuran as Islam expanded beyond theArabian Peninsula intoPersia, theLevant, andNorth Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed byZayd ibn Thabit to use caliphAbu Bakr's copy and prepare a standardised version of the Quran.[31][32] Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, with the other versions ordered to be burnt by Uthman.[31][33][34][35]
While the Shī'ah use the sameQur'an as Sunni Muslims, they do not believe that it was first compiled by Uthman.[36] Rather, the Shī'ah believe that the Qur'an was gathered and compiled byMuhammad during his lifetime.[37][38][39]
Uthman was a businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Caliphate. Umar had established a publicallowance and, on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase ofagricultural lands in conquered territories.[41] Uthman withdrew these restrictions, as the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar, it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably.[25]
Umar had been very strict in the use of money from the public treasury—indeed, apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gifts from any quarter. During the time of Uthman, these restrictions were relaxed. Although Uthman still drew no personal allowance from the treasury, nor did he receive asalary, as he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but, unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to do likewise from certain quarters.[6] Uthman honestly expressed that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one criticized him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far-reaching effects; Muslims, as well as non-Muslims of the Rashidun Caliphate, enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign.[42]
During his rule, Uthman's military-style was more autonomical in nature as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen – e.g.,Abd Allah ibn Amir,Mu'awiya I andAbd Allah ibn Sa'd – unlikeUmar's more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion untilSindh, in modern Pakistan, which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar.[43] The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s.[44]
Some Muslim sources (Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari[51]) claim that after the conquest of northern Africa was completed, Abd Allah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain. Other prominent Muslimhistorians, likeIbn Kathir,[52] have quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abd Allah ibn Sa 'd's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain and Abdullah ibn Nafi ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea, aided by a Berber force. They allegedly succeeded in conquering the coastal areas ofAl-Andalus. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portion of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:
Constantinople will be conquered from the side of Al-Andalus. Thus, if you conquer it, you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next.
Although raids by Berbers and Muslims were conducted against theVisigothic Kingdom in Spain during the late 7th century, there is no evidence that Spain was invaded nor that parts of it were conquered or settled by Muslims prior to the 711 campaign byTariq.
In the next year, in 652,Futuh al-Buldan of Baladhuri writes thatBalochistan was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Kermān, under the command of Majasha ibn Mas'ud. It was the first time that western Balochistan had come directly under the laws of the Caliphate and it paid an agricultural tribute.[57][58]
The military campaigns under Uthman's rule were generally successful, except for a few in theNubia, on the lower Nile.
Noting an increase in anti-government tension around the Caliphate, Uthman's administration decided to determine its origins, extent, and aims. Some time around 654, Uthman called all twelve provincial governors to Medina to discuss the problem. During this Council of Governors, Uthman ordered that all resolutions of the council be adopted according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministers), it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents be sent to various provinces to attempt to determine the source of the discontent. Uthman accordingly sentMuhammad ibn Maslamah toKufa,Usama ibn Zayd toBasra,Ammar ibn Yasir to Egypt, andAbd Allah ibn Umar to Syria. The agents sent to Kufa, Basra and Syria reported that all was well – the people were generally satisfied with the administration, although some individuals had minor personal grievances. Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. Rebels there had been issuing propaganda in favour of making Ali caliph. Ammar ibn Yasir, who had been affiliated with Ali, abandoned Uthman for the Egyptian opposition. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, the governor of Egypt, reported about the opposition's activities instead. He wanted to take action againstMuhammad ibn Abi Bakr (Ali's foster son),Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa (Uthman's adopted son), and Ammar ibn Yasir.[59]
In 655, Uthman directed those with any grievance against the administration, as well as the governors and "Amils" throughout the caliphate, to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj, promising that all legitimate grievances would be redressed. Accordingly, large delegations from various cities came to present their grievances before the gathering.[60]
The rebels realised that the people in Mecca supported Uthman and were not inclined to listen to them.[7] This represented a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim accounts, that before returning to Syria, the governorMuawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, Uthman's cousin, suggested that Uthman should come with him to Syria as the atmosphere there was peaceful. Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he did not want to leave the city of Muhammad (viz., Medina). Muawiyah then suggested that he be allowed to send a strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by rebels to harm him. Uthman rejected it too, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an incitement tocivil war, and he could not be party to such a move.[59]
The politics of Egypt played the major role in the propaganda war against the caliphate, so Uthman summoned Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, to Medina to consult with him as to the course of action that should be adopted. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd came to Medina, leaving the affairs of Egypt to his deputy, and in his absence,Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa staged acoup d'état and took power. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abd Allah hastened back, but Uthman was not in a position to offer him any military assistance, and so Abd Allah was unable to suppress the revolt.[61]
Several Sunni scholars, such asIbn Qutaybah, Ali Ibn Burhanuddin al-Halabi, Ibne Abi-al-Hadeed and Ibne Manzur, reported that there were several leadingSahaba among those who called upon Uthman to step down for reasons such as nepotism and profligacy.
From Egypt, Kufa, and Basra, contingents of about 1,000 people apiece were sent to Medina, each with instructions to assassinate Uthman and overthrow the government.[62] Representatives of the Egyptian contingent waited on Ali and offered him the Caliphate, but he turned them down. Representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Al-Zubayr, and those from Basra waited onTalha, each offering them their allegiance as the next Caliph, but both were similarly turned down. By proposing alternatives to Uthman as Caliph, the rebels swayed public opinion in Medina to the point where Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman had the active support of the Umayyads and a few other people in Medina.[63]
The early stage of the siege of Uthman's house was not severe, but, as the days passed, the rebels intensified the pressure against Uthman.[64] With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca, the rebel position was strengthened further, and as a consequence the crisis deepened. The rebels understood that, after the Hajj, the Muslims, gathered at Mecca from all parts of theMuslim world, might march to Medina to relieve Uthman. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the pilgrimage was over. During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered the rebels, to let them fight, but Uthman refused in an effort to avoid bloodshed among Muslims. Unfortunately for Uthman, violence still occurred. The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by the warrior Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr,[64] along with Ali's sons,Hasan ibn Ali andHusayn ibn Ali.[65][66]
The actual reason for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims.[63] Under Uthman, the people became more prosperous and on thepolitical plane, they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in their absence, thepre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries, which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again. The people took advantage of Uthman's leniency, which became a headache for the state, culminating in Uthman's assassination.[60]
According toWilferd Madelung, during Uthman's reign, "grievances against his arbitrary acts were substantial by standards of his time. Historical sources mention a lengthy account of the wrongdoings he was accused of... It was only his violent death that came to absolve him in Sunni ideology from anyahdath and make him a martyr and the third Rightly Guided Caliph".[67] According to Heather Keaney, Uthman, as a caliph, relied solely on his own volition in picking his cabinet, which led to decisions that bred resistance within the Muslim community. Indeed, his style of governance made Uthman one of the most controversial figures in Islamic history.[68]
The resistance against Uthman arose because he favoured family members when choosing governors, reasoning that, by doing this, he would be able to exact more influence on how the caliphate was run and consequently improve the feudal system he worked to establish. The contrary turned out to be true and his appointees had more control over how he conducted business than he had originally planned.[69] They went so far as to impose authoritarianism over their provinces. Indeed, many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad, complaining about the alleged tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. Moreover, letters were sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces concerning the reported mishandling of power by Uthman's family. This contributed to unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter in an attempt to ascertain the authenticity of the rumours.[70]Wilferd Madelung discredits the alleged role ofAbdullah ibn Saba in the rebellion against Uthman and observes thatfew if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba.[71]
Uthman, likeMu'awiya I, was a member of the leadingMeccanfamily of Ummaya and was indeed the sole representative of the Meccan patricians among theearly companions of the Prophet with sufficient prestige to rank as a candidate. His election was at once their victory and their opportunity. That opportunity was not neglected. Uthman soon fell under the influence of the dominant Meccan families and one after another, the high posts of the Empire went to members of those families.
The weakness and nepotism of Uthman brought to a head the resentment which had for some time been stirring obscurely among the Arab warriors. The Muslim tradition attribute the breakdown which occurred during his reign to the personal defects of Uthman. But, the causes lie far deeper and the guilt of Uthman lay in his failure to recognize, control or remedy them.[72]
On 17 June 656, rebels found the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters. Some of the rebels scaled the neighboring houses and jumped into Uthman's. Then one rebel approached Uthman, grabbed and shook his beard. Uthman prayed to God for protection from killing, the rebel stabbed him in the head, and the other rebels followed suit.[73][74]
According to a narration regarded as likely to be alegend byMadelung,[73] Uthman's wives threw themselves on his body to shield him.Na'ila bint al-Furafisa, one of his wives, extended her hand to block a blade. Her fingers were severed, and she was shoved aside. The following strike killed Uthman. A few of Uthman's slaves retaliated, and one of them succeeded in killing one of the assassins before being murdered by the rebels.[75]
After the body of Uthman had been in the house for three days[citation needed], Na'ila approached some of his supporters to assist in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded, includingMarwan,Zayd ibn Thabit, Huwatib bin Alfarah,Jubayr ibn Mut'im, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram.[76] The body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade, no coffin could be procured. The body was not washed. Thus, Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination.[77]
Na'ila followed the funeral with a lamp, but, in order to maintain secrecy, the lamp had to be extinguished. Na'ila was accompanied by some women, including Uthman's daughter.[78]: 247, 248
The body was carried toJannat al-Baqi for burial.[citation needed] Apparently, some people gathered there and resisted Uthman's burial in the Muslim cemetery. Accordingly, Uthman's supporters later buried him in the Jewish graveyard behindAl-Baqi Cemetery. Some decades later, the Umayyad rulers demolished the wall separating the two cemeteries and merged the Jewish cemetery into the Muslim one to ensure that his tomb was now inside a Muslim cemetery.[79][failed verification]
The funeral prayers were led byJubayr ibn Mut'im, and the dead body was lowered into the grave with little ceremony. After burial, Na'ila and A'isha wanted to speak but were discouraged from doing so due to possible danger from the rioters.[80][78]: 247
The historianal-Tabari notes that Uthman was of medium height, strong-boned and broad-shouldered and walked in a bowlegged manner.[81] He is said to have had large limbs, with fleshy shins and long, hairy forearms.[82] Though commonly described as having been very handsome with a fair complexion,[81] when viewed up close, light scars from a childhood bout ofsmallpox were said to have been evident on his face.[83] He had a full reddish-brown beard to which he appliedsaffron[81] and thick curly hair which grew past his ears, though receded at the front.[83] His teeth were bound with gold wire,[83] with the front ones being noted as being particularly fine.[82]
Unlike his predecessor Umar, Uthman was not a skilled orator, having grown tongue-tied during his first address as caliph. He remained somewhat apart from the other closeSahaba, having been an elegant, educated and cultured merchant-prince standing out among his poorer compatriots. This was a trait which had been acknowledged by Muhammad. One story relates that Aisha, having noted that Muhammad reclined comfortably and spoke casually with Abu Bakr and Umar, asked him why when he addressed Uthman, he chose to gather his clothing neatly and assume a formal manner. Muhammad replied that "Uthman is modest and shy and if l had been informal with him, he would not have said what he had come here to say".[83]
Uthman was a family man[69] who led a simple life even after becoming the caliph, despite the fact that his flourishing family business had made him rich. Prior caliphs had been paid for their services from the bayt al-mal, the public treasury, but the independently wealthy Uthman never took a salary.[84] As a way of taking care of Muhammad's wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman was not completely plain and simple, however, he built a palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims considered it his first step towards ruling like a king.[6]
According toAl-Nuwayri, who lived in the 13th century, it was asked of Uthman why he did not drink wine during the Age of Ignorance, when there was no objection to this practice (before the revelation of Islam). He replied: "I saw that it made the intellect flee in its entirety, and I've never known of something to do this and then return in its entirety."[85]
Uthman is said to have been the first caliph to adopt the titlekhalifat Allah ("deputy of God").[86] The general opinion of the Sunni Muslim community and Sunni historians regarding Uthman's rule were positive, particularly regarding his leniency; in their view, the kinsmen he appointed, such asMuawiya andAbdullah ibn Aamir, proved to be effective in both military and political management. Historians like Muhammad Zaki accused Uthman of corruption, particularly in the case ofWaleed ibn Uqba.[87]
Perhaps the most significant act of Uthman was allowing Muawiya and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, governors respectively of Syria and Northern Africa, to form the first integrated Muslim navy in theMediterranean Sea, rivalling the maritime domination of theByzantine Empire.[88][89] Ibn Saad's conquest of the southeast coast of Spain, his stunning victory at theBattle of the Masts inLycia, and expansion to other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea are generally overlooked. These achievements gave birth to the first Muslim standing navy, thus enabling the first Muslim maritime conquest ofCyprus[88][89] andRhodes.[90][91] This subsequently paved the way for the establishment of several Muslim states in the Mediterranean Sea during the laterUmayyad andAbbasid eras,[92][93] which came in the form of theEmirate of Sicily[94] and its minor vassal theEmirate of Bari,[95][96] as well as theEmirate of Crete[97] and theAglabid Dynasty.[98] The significance of Uthman's naval development and its political legacy was agreed upon by Muhammad M.Ag, author ofIslamic Fiscal and Monetary Policy[99] and further strengthened by Hassan Khalileh referencingTarikh al Bahriyya wal Islamiyya fii Misr wal Sham ("History of the Seas and Islam in Egypt andLevant") by Ahmad Abaddy and Esayyed Salem.[100]
From an expansionist perspective, Uthman is regarded as skilled in conflict management, as is evident from how he dealt with the heated and troubled early Muslim conquered territories, such as Kufa and Basra, by directing the hot-headed Arab settlers to new military campaigns and expansions.[101] This not only resulted in settling the internal conflicts in those settlements but also further expanded Rashidun territory to as far west as southern Iberia[102] and as far east asSindh, Pakistan.[103]
Uthman is credited with bringing unity to the current version of the Quran.[31] Prior to Uthman's reign, the Qur'an did not formally exist as a fixed text but was written in fragmentary form and as a spoken, recited work.[104][105] Uthman observed this brought with it some challenges. For example, even men of the same tribe would at times disagree over how the Quran would be recited.[106] Although some of the companions of Mohammed had attempted to bring together collections of the Quran, it had not yet been standardized.[107]Anas bin Malik reported "Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to Uthman, "O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book ... So Uthman sent a message toHafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur'an so that we may compile the Qur'anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you". Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then orderedZaid bin Thabit,Abdullah bin Az-Zubair, Sa'id bin Al-As and Abdur-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts..."[108] This caliphate order made by Uthman gave the final form of the Quran we have today, and although a few small variants do exist in some areas, most of the variant readings and recitations have been lost or destroyed.[109]
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