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Jainism (pronounced in English asIPA[ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩]), traditionally known asJain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is adharmic religion andphilosophy originating inAncient India. The Jains follow the teachings ofTirthankaras. The 24th Tirthankara, LordMahavira lived in ca.6th century BCE. A small but influential religious minority in modernIndia, with growing immigrant communities in theUnited States,Western Europe,Africa, theFar East and elsewhere, Jains continue to sustain the ancientShraman (श्रमण) orascetic tradition.
Jains have significantly influenced the religious,ethical,political and economic spheres in India for over two millennia. Jainism stressesspiritual independence andequality of all life with particular emphasis onnon-violence.Self-control (व्रत,vratae) is vital for attaining omniscience (kevala jnana) and eventuallymoksha, or realization of the soul's true nature. The Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship. The Jains are the best educated religious community in India (Jains in India according to 2001 census), and the Jain libraries are India's oldest.[1]
Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from theIndus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BCE) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan India, before themigration of Indo-Aryans into the region.
Kalinga (ModernOrissa) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabhnath was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda which was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the idol of Rishabhnath to his capital in Magadh. Rishabhnath is revered as 'Kalinga Jin'. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However Emperor Kharvela in the 1st century BC conquered Magadha and brought back Rishabhnath's idol and installed it in Udaygiri near his capital Shishupalgarh. TheKhandagiri andUdaygiri caves nearBhubaneswar are the only stone monuments dedicated to Jainism surviving in Orissa. Much of the earlier buildings were in wood which were destroyed.
Decipherment ofBrahmi byJames Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism. Jain archaeological findings are often from Maurya, Sunga, Kushan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput and later periods. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modernIndia into theMiddle Eastern andMediterranean regions. At various times, Jainism was found all over South Asia includingSri Lanka and what are nowPakistan,Bangladesh,Myanmar andAfghanistan.
The pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancientBihar possibly gave rise toBuddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism seeJainism and Buddhism. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion seeJainism and Hinduism.
Though Jainism is slowly declining in India, it is rapidly expanding in the West as non-Indians convert to the religion. With 10 to 12 million followers,[2] Jainism is among the smallest of themajor world religions, but in India its influence is much more than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India;Maharashtra,Rajasthan andGujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states.Karnataka andMadhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following inPunjab, especially inLudhiana andPatiala, and there were many Jains inLahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before thePartition of1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jaincommunities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially follow the same principles.
Outside India, theUnited States,United Kingdom,Canada andEast Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) have large Jain communities today. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built there.American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist inNepal,South Africa,Japan,Singapore,Malaysia,Australia,Fiji, andSuriname.
It is generally believed that the Jainsangha divided into two majorsects,Digambar andSvetambar, about 200 years afterMahāvīra's nirvana. Some historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk,Acharya Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers tosouthern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find the Shvetambar sect and in 453, theValabhi council edited and compiled traditional Shvetambar scriptures.
In Sanskrit,ambar refers to a covering like a garment. 'Dig', an older form of 'disha', refers to the cardinal directions. Digambar therefore means those whose garment is only the four directions, or "sky-clad". 'Shwet' means white and Svetambaras are those who wear white coverings.
Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from theKushana period. Tirthankaras are represented without clothes and monks, with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as 'ardhaphalaka' and mentioned in some texts. TheYapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, follows Digambara nudity, along with several Shvetambara beliefs.
Shvetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi,Terapanthi andDeravasi. Some aremurtipujaka (idol worshippers) while non-murtipujaka Jains refuse statues or images. Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974, a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called theSamana Suttam.
Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attainingMoksha. Tirthankars and Siddhas[clarification needed] are role models only because they have attainedMoksha. Jains believe that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternalsoul,jīva. It insists that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains viewGod as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnana, Ananta Darshana, Ananta Caritra, and Ananta Sukha). Jains do not believe in an omnipotent supreme being, creator or manager (karta), but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws and the interplay of its attributes (gunas) and matter (dravya).
Jain scriptures were written over a long period of time, but the most cited is theTattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by the monk-scholar,Umasvati almost 1800 years ago. The primary figures areTirthankaras. There are two main sects calledDigambar andShvetambar, and both believe inahimsa (orahinsā),asceticism,karma,sanskar, andjiva.
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. To kill any person, no matter what crime they committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local non-Jain population has also become vegetarian. History suggests that various strains ofHinduism became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters. For example, Delhi has a bird hospital run by Jains.
Jainism's stance onnonviolence goes much beyondvegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many arevegan due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others excluderoot vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[3] Potatoes, garlic and onions in particular are avoided by Jains.[4] Devout Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset.
Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy, literally means "The Multiplicity of Reality", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavada consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on any topic or in reality in general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation,Syādvāda. Anekantavada is defined as a multiplicity of viewpoints, for it stresses looking at things from others' perspectives.
Jains are usually very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. A palpable presence inIndian culture, Jains have contributed toIndian philosophy,art,architecture,science, and toMohandas Gandhi'spolitics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement forIndian independence.[1]
According to Jain beliefs, theuniverse was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Time is divided into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsarpini and a Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalchakra). Every Utsarpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsarpini half cycle, ethics, progress, happiness, strength, age, body, religion, etc., go from the worst conditions to the best. During the Avsarpini half-cycle, these notions deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19,000 years until the next Ara. After this Avsarpini phase, the Utsarpini phase will begin, continuing the infinite repetition of the Kalchakra.
Jains also believe that at the upswing of each time cycle, people will lose religion again. All things people want will be given by wish-granting trees (Kalpavrksa), and people will be born in sets of twins (Yugalika) with one boy and one girl who stay together all their lives. This can be seen as a symbol of an integrated human with male and female characteristics balanced.
Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths, according to its followers. During the first and last two Aras, these truths lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reachedenlightenment or total knowledge (Kevala Jnana), during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in our time,Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Lord Vardhamana (Mahavira, महावीर) was the last Tirthankara to attain enlightenment (599-527 BCE), preceded by twenty-threeTirthankaras making a total of twenty-four Tirthankaras.
It is important to note that the above description stands true "in our universe and in our time" for Jains believe there have been infinite sets of 24 Tirthankaras, one for each half of the time cycle, and this will continue in the future. Hence, Jainism does not trace its origins to Rishabh Deva, the first, or Mahavira, the twenty-fourth, Tirthankara.
The Jain religion places great emphasis on the theory ofKarma. Essentially, it means that alljivas reap what they sow. A happy or miserable existence is influenced by actions in previous births. These results may not occur in the same life, and what we sow is not limited to physical actions. Physical, verbal, and mental activities play a role in future situations.Karma has long been an essential component of Jainism, and other Indian religions such asBuddhism,Hinduism andSikhism. It is believed generally that the Jainist God has foreseen all things, before many modern scientists.
The backbone of the Jain philosophy, the nine Tattvas show how to attain moksha. Without knowing them, one cannot progress towards liberation. Jainism explains thatKarma theory is intertwined with these nine principles.They are:
Some scriptures do not includePunya andPaap as Tattvas, as it is found that they consist of Karman particles, which are seen as Ajiv.
Jainmonks practice strictasceticism and strive to make this, or one of the coming births, their last. The laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible. Following strict ethics, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods.
Jains practiceSamayika, which is aSanskrit word meaningequanimity and derived fromsamaya (the soul). The goal of Samayika is to attain equanimity. Samayika is begun by achieving a balance in time. If this current moment is defined as a moving line between the past and the future, Samayika happens by being fully aware, alert and conscious in that moving time line when one experiences Atma, one's true nature, common to all life. Samayika is especially significant duringParyushana, a special period during the monsoon, and is practiced during the ritual known as SamvatsariPratikramana.
Jains believe thatDevas (angels or celestial beings) cannot helpjiva to obtain liberation, which must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their efforts to attain the exalted state ofSiddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.
The strict Jain ethical code for both laity and monks/nuns is:
For laypersons, 'chastity' means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means completecelibacy.
Nonviolence includes being vegetarian, and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word, and deed, both toward humans and toward every other possible living creature, including even themselves. Jain monks walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing any insects. Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed by them to be the highest form of life. It is for this reason that it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person.
While performing holy deeds, Shvetambara Jains wear cloths,muhapatti, over their mouths and noses to avoid saliva falling on texts or revered images. Some wear either the muhapatti or possibly a small card over their mouths so as to avoid accidentally inhaling even a single insect when awake. Many health-giving concepts have been entwined within the Jain religion. For example, Jains do not drink unboiled water because it contains billions of micro-organisms. This practice of drinking boiled water has nothing to do with non-violence as it is often misconstrued, but to do with health. In ancient times, a person might get ill by drinking unboiled water, which in turn would prevent that individual from remaining in equanimity, as illness may precede or engender intolerance.
True spirituality, according to enlightened Jains, starts when a follower attains samyak darshana, or rational perception. Samyak drshti souls are said to be on the correct path to moksha, or 'striving to remain in the nature of the soul', which is characterized by detachment from worldly life, and being in a state of pure knowledge and bliss. Attachment to worldly life binds new karmas, and traps one in a cycle of birth, death, and suffering. The worldly life is recognized by its dualistic nature (for example, the dualities of love and hate, suffering and pleasure, etc.), for the perception of one state cannot exist without the contrasting perception of the other.
Jain Dharma shares some aspects of its beliefs with Hinduism. Both revere the same Devas and Devis (heavenly beings), and share the theory of Karma and reincarnation. However, the Jain version of theRamayana andMahabharata is different from Hindu beliefs, for example. Generally, Hindus believe that Rama was a reincarnation of God, while Jains believe he attained moksha (liberation) since they do not believe in God the creator. (Note that some Hindus, such as Yogis, accept many aspects of Jain Dharma.)
Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will toward others and practice forgiveness. They believe thatatma (soul) can lead one to becoming Parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from all violence (Ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities should be eradicated. Some of the sinful activities are listed as under:
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance ofShrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his ownphilosophy.[5] Jainism has a very distinct idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical form is not to be worshiped, but it is the Gunas (virtues, qualities) which are praised. Tirthankaras are only role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi stringently reject the appearance of worshipping statues.
Fasting is common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains fast at special times, during festivals, and on holy days. Paryushan is the most prominent festival, lasting eight days in Svetambara Jain tradition and ten days in Digambar Jain tradition during the monsoon. The monsoon is a time of fasting. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if he or she feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain whatever self control is possible for the individual.
Some Jains also revere a special practice, wherein a person, who is aware that he or she may die soon, and feels he has completed all duties in this life, ceases to eat or drink unto death. This form of dying is called Sallekhana. It is considered to be an extremely spiritual merit. This has recently led to a controversy in India, where in the State of Rajasthan, a lawyer has filed a writ petition seeking the High Court of Rajasthan to hold that Sallekhana is an illegal practice. However, Jains do not see Sallekhana as a form of suicide, but rather as a ritual.
Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, theNavkar Mantra. Jains have built temples, orBasadi or Derasar, where images of Tirthankars are worshiped. Jain rituals may be elaborate because symbolic objects are offered and Tirthankars praised in song. But some Jain sects refuse to enter temples or worship images, considering them simply guides. Sadhumargi Svetambara Jains, such as the Terapanthi, regard holy statues or temples as totally unnecessary.
Jain rituals include:
Jain marriage ceremonies and family rites are usually variations of orthodoxHindu rituals. Further, the similarity among Marwari Jain culture and Hindu culture is so strong that it is difficult to separate them. Many say the reason is because of common roots.[citation needed] Also, Marwari Hindus converted to Jainism so as to leave violence and attain vegetarianism.
The holiest symbol is a simpleswastika. Another important symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizingahimsa.
Other major Jain symbols include:
While Jains represent only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are considerable. Jains have wielded great influence on the culture and language of Karnataka and Southern India. Jainism has influencedGujarat most significantly. The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Some of the most important people in Gujarat's Jain history wereAcarya Hemacandra Suri and his pupil, theCalukya rulerKumarapala.
Jains are both among the wealthiest of Indians and the most philanthropic. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are some of the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influencedGujarati cuisine. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian (as is Jainism; seeJain vegetarianism), and its food has a mild aroma as onions and garlic are omitted.
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.
Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example, almost all earlyKannada literature andTamil literature was authored by Jains.
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatthavartha Sutra,Puranas, Kosh, Shravakachar, mathematics, Nighantus etc). "Aabhidhan Rajendra Kosh" written byAcharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand theJainPrakrit,Sanskrit, and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use and references with in oldest Jain literature.Later Jain literature was written inApabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars),Hindi (Chhahdhal,Mokshamarg Prakashak, and others),Tamil (Jivakacintamani,Kural, and others), andKannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Kannada is the only Indian language which has Jain versions ofRamayana andMahabharata.
In India there are thousands of Jain Monks, of which categories have been defined like Acharya, Acharyakalp, Balacharya, Ailacharya, Upadhyaya, Muni, Ganeni Ariyaka, Ariyka, Ailak, Chullak, Chullika etc. Some famous Jain monks (sadhu or muni or maharaj) are defined as follows
South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:
Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially withStoic andPythagorean philosophies of Europe.
In 2005, the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in 5 states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[4]
U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad Judgment
In 2006, the Supreme Court opined that"Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion". (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2]
Akalankagranthatraya, Prameyakamalamartanda and his original work,Jaina Darsana.''
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