Upper Sorbian differs from its closest relative,Lower Sorbian (with which it forms the Sorbian subgroup), at all levels of the language system: in phonetics, morphology, and vocabulary. At the same time, the two languages share a number of features that distinguish them from other West Slavic languages—in particular, the preservation of the dual number, the retention of simple past tense forms of verbs, and an especially large number of lexical borrowings fromGerman. Several linguistic features link Upper Sorbian with theLechitic languages,[5] while in a number of other features it is similar to theCzech-Slovak subgroup.
At present, in addition to everyday use (in dialectal or colloquial form), Upper Sorbian is used as a literary language in education, the mass media, science, and so on. Compared to Lower Sorbian, it has a larger number of speakers, a stricter literary norm, and greater stylistic differentiation.[6] Nevertheless, the number of Upper Sorbian speakers is constantly declining, with the main speakers of the language generally being older members of the Sorbian community, whose main means of communication is not the literary language but dialects (which are best preserved in the areas ofUpper Lusatia with a Catholic population). The writing system is based on the Latin alphabet; the earliest written records in Upper Sorbian date back to the 16th century.
Upper Sorbian is one of the minority languages in Germany that are officially recognized under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[7] In the officially designatedsettlement area inUpper Lusatia, there are therefore, on the basis of the Saxon Sorbs Act, among other things, bilingual street and place name signs as well as state schools with Upper Sorbian as the language of instruction or Sorbian as a foreign language.
The history of the Upper Sorbian language inGermany began with theSlavic migrations during the 6th century AD. Beginning in the 12th century, there was a massive influx of rural Germanic settlers fromFlanders,Saxony,Thuringia andFranconia. This so-called "Ostsiedlung" (eastern settlement or expansion) led to a slow but steady decline in use of the Sorbian language. In addition, in the Saxony region, the Sorbian language was legally subordinated to the German language. Language prohibitions were later added: In 1293, the Sorbian language was forbidden in Berne castle before the courts; in 1327 it was forbidden inZwickau andLeipzig, and from 1424 on it was forbidden inMeissen. Further, there was the condition in many guilds of the cities of the area to accept only members of German-language origin.
However, the central areas of theMilzener andLusitzer, in the area of today'sLusatia, were relatively unaffected by the newGerman language settlements and legal restrictions. The language therefore flourished there. By the 17th century, the number of Sorbian speakers in that area grew to over 300,000. The oldest evidence of written Upper Sorbian is theBurger Eydt Wendisch document, which was discovered in the city ofBautzen and dates to the year 1532.
Abilingual sign in Germany; German in first place and Upper Sorbian in second
There are an estimated 18,000 speakers of Upper Sorbian.[8] Almost all of these live in the state ofSaxony, chiefly in the district ofBautzen (Budyšin). The stronghold of the language is the village ofCrostwitz (Chrósćicy) and the surrounding municipalities, especially to the west of it. In this core area, Upper Sorbian remains the predominant vernacular. In this area, Sorbian is an official language and children are taught Sorbian in schools and day cares. Other concerted efforts to preserve the language through media, club, and related resources have continued into the 21st century.[8] In spite of these efforts, numbers of Upper Sorbian speakers were still considered to be dwindling. It has been suggested[by whom?] that this may be in part because of a lack of understanding of the benefits of bilingualism.[8]
Bilingual sign at a shop on Karl-Marx-Straße in Bautzen, reading: “Bakery products. Meat and sausage. Fruits and vegetables” in Upper Sorbian
The language situation in modern Upper Lusatia is characterized by complete German–Sorbian bilingualism, with a growing tendency toward German monolingualism. The domain of Upper Sorbian, unlike that of German, is significantly limited. German is practically the universal means of communication for all Sorbs, while Upper Sorbian (in dialectal or colloquial form) is used mainly in everyday communication—in the family, with friends and acquaintances; the literary form of Upper Sorbian is used in public life mainly in Sorbian organizations and in the church.[9]
The functions of Upper Sorbian also include Sorbian or bilingual groups in kindergartens, teaching of some subjects in schools providing special education as provided for by Saxony state law, the periodic press and publishing, and use in certain fields of art, culture, and science supported by theFoundation for the Sorbian People, which is funded by the federal government of Germany and the governments of Saxony and Brandenburg. At the same time, due to the small number of pupils, Sorbian schools are under threat of closure; language development is hindered by the administrative fragmentation of Sorbian-inhabited areas, the mass outmigration of young people (which began in the 1990s) towestern Germany, the industrial development of the region, and the expansion of brown coal mining, which forces Sorbs to relocate and disrupts the compactness of their settlement area.[10] The low prestige of Sorbian, the existence of mixed Sorbian–German marriages, and the dominant role of German in all areas of life in Upper Lusatia contribute to the constant decline in the number of Upper Sorbian speakers.[9]
Upper Sorbian exists in several forms: the supraregional form, which includes the literary written and spoken varieties as well as the colloquial form (there is also a written form of colloquial speech); and the regional form, represented by Upper Sorbian dialects. A distinctive feature of the relationship between the different forms is the relatively large gap between the literary language and the developing dialectalkoine, which influences the colloquial form of Upper Sorbian.
The use of Upper Sorbian varies in different regions of Upper Lusatia, particularly between Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) areas.
Among Catholics in the far west of the Upper Sorbian-speaking area, natural language transmission (initially at the dialect level) from the older and middle generations to the younger generation is preserved. In Catholic communities located in the triangle Bautzen–Hoyerswerda–Kamenz, 60–65% of the population speak Upper Sorbian, and in some places this figure reaches 80–90%.[11] Members of the younger generation here typically have equally good command of both Upper Sorbian and German; the German population may understand Sorbian passively or even speak it actively. In the Catholic church, services are conducted in Upper Sorbian; in some schools, teaching is carried out in Upper Sorbian, while in others it is taught as a subject. These areas are characterized by more active use of the literary language (both written and spoken), due to the concentration of scientific and cultural Sorbian organizations. In everyday communication, speakers from this dialect area often use a colloquial form of the language that ranges from strongly dialectal to semi-literary with dialectal coloring. The language situation in Catholic communities is somewhat similar to that in Bautzen, the cultural center of the Sorbs.[9][12]
For most other Upper Sorbian speakers, natural language transmission from the older generation has been broken; members of the middle and younger generations have learned their native language in its literary form only at school. Sorbs here are a minority compared to the German population, and German is the main language of communication; Germans generally do not speak Sorbian. The use of Upper Sorbian in public life is limited; in schools, it is taught as a special elective subject. The role of the literary language compared to dialects is very low. The language situation among Sorbs in the Protestant areas of Upper Lusatia is largely similar to that observed in Lower Lusatia.[9][12]
As of 2009, there were 12 Sorbian kindergartens in Saxony, three of them following theWitaj program; in addition, 11 kindergartens hadWitaj program groups.[13] Sorbian schoolchildren attended six Sorbian and three bilingual primary schools, four Sorbian and one bilingual secondary school; in the 2009/2010 school year there were 2,232 Sorbian pupils. Bautzen also has a Sorbian gymnasium, and in two other gymnasiums Upper Sorbian is taught as a subject.[13] Upper Sorbian is taught at the Institute for Sorbian Studies atLeipzig University.[13]
Cover ofPłomjo (2024)
Upper Sorbian-language periodicals include the newspaperSerbske Nowiny, the cultural monthlyRozhlad (also with Lower Sorbian materials), the children’s magazinePłomjo, and religious publications—the CatholicKatolski Posoł and the LutheranPomhaj Bóh. Radio programs are broadcast byMitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR).[14] As of 2017, MDR produces 21.5 hours of radio programming per week. MDR also produces a half-hour Upper Sorbian television programWuhladko.[15] There are also online publications, such asRunjewonline.info (available in both Sorbian languages).
The preservation and development of Sorbian language and culture is overseen byDomowina—a union of scientific, cultural, religious, student, and other Sorbian organizations.Domowina also operatesa publishing house producing books in the Sorbian languages. The current regulator of the literary language is the Upper Sorbian Language Commission (Hornjoserbska rěčna komisija, HRK).[16]
Bilingual sign on the Reichenturm in Bautzen
Bilingual signboard on one of the government institutions inNiesky
Bilingual street sign in Bautzen
Bilingual name of the riverSpree on the bridge in Bautzen
For most speakers of the Sorbian languages—primarily rural residents—dialects are the main means of communication. Only a relatively small portion of the Sorbian population, mainly the rural and urban intelligentsia, speak the literary languages, including literary Upper Sorbian. In the peripheral areas of the Sorbian language territory, dialects are disappearing relatively quickly (except in the Catholic areas of Upper Lusatia), while in the central regions they are better preserved. Overall, the dialects have been more heavily influenced by the German language compared to the literary Upper Sorbian language.
In Upper Lusatia, the Upper Sorbian group of dialects is spoken; the modern literary Upper Sorbian language developed on the basis of several of these dialects. The area of this dialect group is located in the southern part of the Sorbian-speaking territory and contrasts with the Lower Sorbian dialect area in the north. Upper Sorbian dialects are separated from Lower Sorbian dialects by a zone of transitional (border) dialects, through which broad bundles of isoglosses of major Sorbian linguistic features pass.
Despite covering a relatively small area, the Upper Sorbian territory is characterized by considerable dialectal diversity. The following main dialects are distinguished:
According to the Sorbian Linguistic Atlas, there is also the Lubij orLöbau dialect, among others.
The Bautzen dialect, which formed the basis of the literary language, is spoken in the area surrounding the town of Bautzen. The Catholic dialect is spoken in Catholic parishes west of Bautzen up to the town of Kamenz. The Kulow dialect, closely related to the Catholic dialect, is spoken by Sorbs in the vicinity of Kulow (Wittichenau). To the north and northeast of the Bautzen dialect area lie the regions where the Golan and Eastern Golan dialects are spoken.[17]
The Sorbs use the Latin alphabet, supplemented with letters created by means of the diacritical marks ˇ (hóčka) and ´ (smužka).
Following the orthographic reform of December 1, 1948, the Upper Sorbian alphabet contains 34 letters. The lettersQq,Vv, andXx are used only in foreign proper names. The orthography follows an etymological–phonetic principle.
Letter
a
b
c
č
ć
d
dź
e
ě
f
g
h
ch
i
j
k
ł
l
Name
a
bei̯
ʦei̯
ʧei̯
ʨɛt
dei̯
ʥei̯ / ʥɛt
ei̯
ʲɨt
ɛf
ɡei̯
ha
xa / kʰa
i
i̯ɔt / i̯ʊt
ka
ɛu̯
ɛl
Letter
m
n
ń
o
ó
p
r
ř
s
š
t
u
w
y
z
ž
Name
ɛm
ɛn
eʲn
ɔ
ʊ
pei̯
ɛʀ
ɛɾ̠
ɛs
ɛʃ
tei̯
u
u̯ei̯
ɨ / ɨpsilɔn
zɛt
ʒɛt
When alphabetically sorting, no distinction is made between the lettersn andń or betweeno andó. For example,nósk (“little nose”) is sorted beforenosorohač (“rhinoceros”). If two words differ only in these letters, their alphabetical order is still taken into account, as inwon (“out, away”) –wón (“he”) –wóń (“scent”).
The letters Ě, Ń, Ó, and Ř never occur at the beginning of a word; therefore, their uppercase forms are very rare and are only used when the entire word is written in uppercase (for example,RÓŽEŃ = “grill rack; spit”).
Word-initial vowels are rare, and are often preceded by a non-phonemic glottal stop[ʔ], or sometimes[h]./i,u,ɛ,ɔ/ appear in word-initial position only in recent borrowings, whereas the diphthongs never occur in this position.[20]
The near-close/ɪ,ʊ/ can also be analyzed as diphthongs/iɪ,uʊ/.[19] Here, they are analyzed as monophthongs.
The diphthongal allophones of/ɪ,ʊ/ are falling:[iɪ̯,uʊ̯].[iɪ] occurs only under strong sentence stress in monosyllabic words. Conversely,[uʊ] is a more common realization of/ʊ/ than[ʊ].[19]
/ɛ/ has three allophones:
Open-mid[ɛ] between hard consonants and after a hard consonant;[21]
Mid[ɛ̝] between soft consonants and after a soft consonant (excluding/j/ in both cases);[21]
/w/ is a somewhat velarized bilabial approximant[β̞ˠ], whereas/wʲ/ is a strongly palatalized bilabial approximant[ɥ].[30]
/v/ is very rare. Apart from loanwords, it occurs only in two Slavonic words:zełharny/ˈzɛvarnɨ/ 'deceitful' andzełharnosć/ˈzɛvarnɔst͡ʃ/ 'deceitfulness', both of which are derivatives ofłhać/ˈfat͡ʃ/ 'to lie'. Usage of these words is typically restricted to theBautzen dialect, as speakers of the Catholic dialect usełžeć/ˈbʒɛt͡ʃ/ and its derivatives.[31][32]
/t,d,l/ before/i/ (in the case of/l/ also before/ɛ,ɪ/) are weakly palatalized[tʲ,dʲ,lʲ].Šewc-Schuster (1984) also reports palatalized[fʲ,vʲ,kʲ,ɡʲ,xʲ,hʲ] as allophones of/f,v,k,ɡ,x,h/.[35] Among these, the labiodental[fʲ,vʲ] are extremely rare.[20]
/n,nʲ/ are velar[ŋ,ŋʲ] in front of velar consonants.[36]
/d͡z/ is very rare. In many cases, it merges with/z/ into[z].[37][38]
/t͡sʲ,zʲ/ are very rare.[37][38] According toStone (2002), the phonemic status of/t͡sʲ/ is controversial.[20]
In most dialects,/t͡ʃ,d͡ʒ,ʃ,ʒ/ arepalato-alveolar. This is unlike Lower Sorbian, where these consonants are laminal retroflex (flat postalveolar)[t͡ʂ,ʂ,ʐ] (Lower Sorbian/t͡ʂ/ does not have a voiced counterpart).[39][40] Laminal retroflex realizations of/ʃ,ʒ/[what about the affricates /tʃ, dʒ/?] also occur in Upper Sorbian dialects spoken in some villages north ofHoyerswerda.[29][41]
/k,ɡ,x/ are velar, whereas/r,rʲ/ are uvular.[42][43]
An aspirated[kʰ] is a morpheme-initial allophone of/x/ in some cases, as well as a possible word-initial allophone of/k/.[44]
/x/ is typically accompanied with trilling of the uvula[ʀ̝̊], so thatbrach/ˈbrax/ 'fault' is typically pronounced[bʁaʀ̝̊].[45]
/x/ does not occur word-initially, whereas/h/ does not occur word-finally.[46]
/r,rʲ/ are typically realized as fricatives[ʁ,ʁʲ] or approximants[ʁ̞,ʁ̞ʲ]. They can be trilled[ʀ,ʀʲ] in clear and careful pronunciation. Furthermore,/r/ can also be realized as a voiceless fricative[χ]. It can also be vocalized in the syllable coda, as inuniwersita[unʲiˈwɛɐ̯sita] 'University'.[47] They are never alveolar[r,rʲ], which is an archaic pronunciation.[48]
An epenthetic/j/ is inserted before a post-vocalic soft consonant, yielding a diphthong. If the soft consonant occurs before/ɛ/ or/ɪ/, it is often realized as hard, and the vowels merge to[ɛ̝].[20][example needed]
In literary language, the contrast between hard and soft consonants is neutralized in word-final position. For instance, the letter⟨ń⟩ represents the/jn/ sequence in this position (as indźeń/ˈd͡ʒɛjn/ 'day'), not a single phoneme/nʲ/.[20]
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Upper Sorbian has bothfinal devoicing and regressivevoicingassimilation, both word-internal and across word boundaries.[20][49] In the latter context,/x/ is voiced to[ɣ]. Regressive voicing assimilation does not occur beforesonorants and/h/.[49]
Stress in Upper Sorbian is expiratory and falls mainly on the first syllable. In four-syllable or longer words, a secondary stress appears on the penultimate syllable (ˈdźiwaˌdźelnik “actor”). In compound words, the secondary stress falls on the first syllable of the second element (ˈzapadoˌslowjanski “West Slavic”). In the superlative forms of adjectives, the main stress is placed on the prefixnaj-, and the secondary stress is on the first syllable of the root (though the reverse placement of stress is also possible). In preposition + noun combinations, the preposition draws the stress onto itself from monosyllabic and disyllabic nouns and pronouns (ˈke mni “to me,”ˈdo města “into the city”), but if the noun carries logical emphasis, it also receives the phonetic stress. Upper Sorbian also has enclitics, i.e., words that cannot bear stress. In loanwords, the stress falls on the same syllable as in the source language (literaˈtura “literature,”šoˈfer “chauffeur”).[citation needed]
In Upper Sorbian grammar, the following parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, adverb, verb, conjunction, preposition, particle, and interjection.
Nouns and pronouns in Upper Sorbian have the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, animacy, and person. As in other Slavic languages, masculine, feminine, and neuter genders are distinguished. The category of animacy applies to masculine nouns and the words agreeing with them in the singular. The category of person applies to masculine nouns and their agreeing words in the dual and plural. In the category of number, the archaic dual has been preserved — it also survives in modern Lower Sorbian and Slovene (although in Proto-Slavic the locative dual form coincided with the genitive dual, in Upper Sorbian it has come to coincide with the dative-instrumental dual form).
Nouns and pronouns have six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and locative, as well as a special vocative form (used for masculine animate nouns, except those ending in-a, and for the feminine nounmać “mother”).
In the singular, the declension of nouns (wěcownik, substantiw) of the masculine and neuter genders differs from that of the feminine gender. Before the ending-e in feminine nouns in the dative case, and in nouns of all genders in the locative case, alternations occur between a hard stem consonant and its palatalized counterpart, as well as the following specific alternations:d — dź, t — ć, ł — l, h — z, ch — š, k — c, g — z.
Masculine and neuter nouns in the locative case, if they have a soft or hardened final consonant, as well as in most cases when ending ing, h, ch, k, ł (and some other consonants), take the ending-u instead of-e. In masculine and neuter nouns ending inh, ch, k, when the rare ending-e occurs, the following alternations take place:h — z, ch — š, k — c.
Feminine nouns with stems ending inz, c, s take the ending-y in the dative and locative. Feminine nouns with stems ending ink, g, ch, h take the ending-i in the genitive.
Masculine gender — Examples of declension of masculine nouns:nan (“father”),jež (“hedgehog”),dub (“oak”), andćerń (“thorn”).
Case
Animate
Inanimate
Stem ending in hard consonant
Stem ending in soft consonant
Stem ending in hard consonant
Stem ending in soft consonant
Nominative
nan
jěž
dub
ćerń
Genitive
nana
jěža
duba
ćernja
Dative
nanej
jěžej
dubej
ćernjej
Accusative
nana
jěža
dub
ćerń
Instrumental
nanom
jěžom
dubom
ćernjom
Locative
nanje
jěžu
dubje
ćernju
Some monosyllabic inanimate nouns in the genitive case can have, along with the ending -a, also the ending-u:hroda/hrodu (“of the fortress”, “of the castle”),doma/domu (“of the house”),loda/lodu (“of the ice”),mjeda/mjedu (“of the honey”), and so on. In the dative case in some nouns the ending -u occurs along with -ej:ludu (“to/for the people”),měru (“to/for the world/peace”),wozu (“to/for the cart”), and so on,bóh (“God”) ends in the dative case only with -u. In the accusative case the endings of animate nouns coincide with the endings of the genitive case, the endings of inanimate nouns — with the endings of the nominative case. Special paradigms of nouns ending in -a and personal names ending in -o : predsyda (“chairman”),predsydy,predsydźe,predsydu,predsydu,predsydźe; ćěsla (“carpenter”),ćěsle,ćěsli,ćěslu,ćěslu,ćěsli; Beno,Bena,Benej,Bena,Benom,Benje.
Feminine and neuter gender. Examples of declension of neuter nouns:słowo (“word”),morjo (“sea”),ranje (“morning”), and feminine gender:žona (“woman”, “wife”),kólnja (“shed”) andhródź (“cowshed”).
Case
Neuter
Feminine
Stem on a hard consonant
Stem on a soft consonant
Stem on a hard consonant
Stem on a soft consonant
Nominative
słowo
morjo,ranje
žona
kólnja,hródź
Genitive
słowa
morja
žony
kólnje,hródźe
Dative
słowu
morju
žonje
kólni,hródźi
Accusative
słowo
morjo,ranje
žonu
kólnju,hródź
Instrumental
słowom
morjom
žonu
kólnju,hródźu
Locative
słowje
morju
žonje
kólni,hródźi
In the nominative and accusative cases the nounknjeni (“lady”) ends in -i, in the other cases it declines like the wordkólnja (“shed”, “canopy”). Nouns of the typekuchnja (“kitchen”),bróžnja (“barn”, “shed”) have parallel formskucheń,bróžeń. Nouns of the typespěwanje (“singing”),drěnje (“pulling”),ranje (“morning”) have the ending -e, in the other cases they decline like the wordmorjo (“sea”). In the genitive case the forms of the nounsškla (“bowl”, “dish”) andwoš (“louse”):šklě andwši. In the dative and locative cases the nounsstwa (“room”) andhra (“game”) have the ending -ě.
Dual number
The endings of masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases of the dual number differ from the endings of feminine and neuter nouns. Depending on whether masculine nouns in the accusative case denote a person or not, they have different endings. For nouns denoting paired objects, instead of dual forms, plural forms can be used:nohi instead ofnoze (“legs”),ruki instead ofruce (“hands”). Before the ending -e in the nominative and accusative cases for feminine and neuter nouns, alternation of a hard consonant of the stem with a soft one occurs, as well as alternationsd — dź, t — ć, ł — l, h — z, ch — š, k — c, g — z. After soft consonants in the nominative and accusative cases, alternation a — e occurs. Neuter and feminine nouns with a stem ending in z, c, s in the nominative and accusative cases have the ending -y.
Examples of the declension of masculine nouns:nanaj (“two fathers”),mužej (“two husbands”, “two men”),psykaj (“two dogs”) andježej (“two hedgehogs”); feminine gender:žonje (“two wives”, “two women”); and neuter gender:mori (“two seas”):
Case
Masculine gender
Non-masculine gender
Denoting persons
Not denoting persons
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Nominative
nanaj
mužej
psykaj
ježej
žonje
mori
Genitive
nanow
mužow
psykow
ježow
žonow
morjow
Dative
nanomaj
mužomaj
psykomaj
ježomaj
žonomaj
morjomaj
Accusative
nanow
mužow
psykaj
ježej
žonje
mori
Instrumental
nanomaj
mužomaj
psykomaj
ježomaj
žonomaj
morjomaj
Locative
nanomaj
mužomaj
psykomaj
ježomaj
žonomaj
morjomaj
In the nominative and accusative cases, the nounsstwa (“room”) andhra (“game”) have the ending-ě. The nominative and accusative forms of the nounswucho (“ear”) andwoko (“eye”) are:wuši andwoči.
Special paradigms of nouns in-a [148]:predsydaj (“both chairmen”),predsydow,predsydomaj,predsydow,predsydomaj,predsydomaj;ćěslej (“both carpenters”),ćěslow,ćěslomaj,ćěslow,ćěslomaj,ćěslomaj.
Plural
Depending on the endings that occur in the nominative and accusative cases of the plural, all nouns are divided into three groups: masculine nouns denoting persons (personal masculine), other masculine nouns and feminine nouns (non-personal masculine), and neuter nouns.
Examples of declension of personal masculine nouns:nanojo (“fathers”),mužojo (“husbands”, “men”); non-personal masculine nouns:duby (“oaks”); and feminine nouns:kólnje (“sheds”, “canopies”); as well as neuter nouns:słowa (“words”) andmorja (“seas”):
Case
Masculine and feminine gender
Neuter gender
Personal masculine nouns
Non-personal masculine nouns
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Stem ending in a hard consonant
Stem ending in a soft consonant
Nominative
nanojo
mužojo
duby
kólnje
słowa
morja
Genitive
nanow
mužow
dubow
kólnjow
słowow
morjow
Dative
nanam
mužam
dubam
kólnjam
słowam
morjam
Accusative
nanow
mužow
duby
kólnje
słowa
morja
Instrumental
nanami
mužemi
dubami
kólnjemi
słowami
morjemi
Locative
nanach
mužach
dubach
kólnjach
słowach
morjach
Non-personal masculine nouns of masculine and feminine gender in the nominative and accusative cases with a stem ending ink, g, ch, h have the ending-i. In the instrumental case, after soft consonants, alternationa — e occurs. In the nominative case, nouns denoting a male person mostly end in-ojo. Nouns with the suffixes-ar-, -er-, -el-, -ol-, -an- have the ending-jo (before which in the suffix-an- the alternationa — e occurs). Nouns ending in-c and-k end in-y (with the alternationk — c before this ending). Some nouns have endings-i and-a, before which alternation of a hard stem consonant with a soft one occurs, as well as alternationst — ć, d — dź, ł — l, ch — š and others:bratřa (“brothers”),kmótřa (“godfathers”),susodźa (“neighbors”),husići/husića (“Hussites”),studenći/studenća (“students”), etc. Forms of the nounsškla andwoš in the nominative and accusative cases:šklě andwši.
In the genitive case, nouns with a soft stem or with a stem ending in-ł have, alongside the ending-ow, also the ending-i (for the nounsdźěći “children” andludźi “people” only the ending-i is used); in the nounshusy (“geese”) andkury (“hens”) the ending-y is found alongside-ow. Some nouns have no ending in the genitive case:pjenjez (“money”),Drježdźan (“of Dresden”), and others.
In the dative case, for a number of nouns denoting living beings, alongside the ending-am the ending-om is also found:wołam/wołom (“to oxen”),kruwam/kruwom (“to cows”),husam/husom (“to geese”), etc.; some nouns have only the ending-om:dźěćom (“to children”),ludźom (“to people”), etc.
In the instrumental case, alongside the ending-ami (-emi), the ending-imi (-ymi) is also found:konjemi/konimi (“with horses”),kruwami/kruwymi (“with cows”), etc.; some nouns have only the ending-imi (-ymi):dźěćimi (“with children”),ludźimi (“with people”), etc.
In the locative case, alongside the ending-ach, the ending-och is also found:konjach/konjoch (“on horses”),kruwach/kruwoch (“on cows”),swinjach/swinjoch (“on pigs”), etc.; some nouns have only the ending-och:dźěćoch (“about children”),ludźoch (“about people”), etc.
Special paradigms of nouns ending in-a:predsydojo (“chairmen”),predsydow,predsydam,predsydow,predsydami,predsydach;ćěslojo (“carpenters”),ćěslow,ćěslam,ćěslow,ćěslemi,ćěslach.
Peculiarities of the declension of some nouns.
For nouns denoting young creatures, in the singular and dual numbers, the suffix-eć- is added to the stem (except in the nominative and accusative forms); in the plural — the suffix-at-:ćelo (“calf”),ćeleća (singular),ćeleći (dual),ćelata (plural).
For some nouns with a stem ending in a soft consonant, it is characteristic to add the suffix-en- to the stem (except in the nominative and accusative forms):znamjo (“sign”),znamjenja (singular),znamjeni (dual),znamjenja (plural).
To the stem of the nounmać in all forms except the nominative and accusative, the suffix-er- is added (in the accusative, bothmać andmaćer are possible).
To the noundźěćo (“child”), in the singular and dual numbers, the suffix-s- is added to the stem (except in the nominative and accusative forms):dźěćo,dźěsća (singular),dźěsći (dual). The plural paradigm:dźěći,dźěći,dźěćom,dźěći,dźěćimi,dźěćoch.
Adjective
Adjectives (adjektiwy,kajkostniki) are divided into three categories:
relative (poćahowe,relaciske), expressing the quality of an object through another object:hórski “mountain”,dobroćiwy “benevolent”,wěriwy “believing”, “trusting”;
Adjectives have two types of declension — soft (which includes adjectives whose stem ends inč,š,ž or softn andw) and hard (which includes all the rest). A number of adjectives are indeclinable:ryzy (“red-haired”),bosy (“barefoot”),nabruń (“brownish”),načorń (“blackish”),nazeleń (“greenish”),sćicha (“quiet”, “calm”),zhorda (“proud”),zwulka (“arrogant”, “haughty”), and others.
Declension of hard-type adjectives using the examplemały “small”:
Declension of soft-type adjectives using the exampletuni (“cheap”):
Case
Singular
Dual
Plural
Masculine
Neuter
Feminine
Nominative
tuni
tunje
tunja
tunjej
tunje,tuni
Genitive
tunjeho
tunjeho
tunjeje
tunjeju
tunich
Dative
tunjemu
tunjemu
tunjej
tunimaj
tunim
Accusative
tuni,tunjeho
tunje
tunju
tunjej,tunjeju
tunje,tunich
Instrumental
tunim
tunim
tunjej
tunimaj
tunimi
Locative
tunim
tunim
tunjej
tunimaj
tunich
In the masculine gender, the form of the accusative singular coincides with the form of the genitive if the adjective agrees with an animate noun. In the dual and plural, the form of the accusative coincides with the genitive if the adjective agrees with a noun denoting a male person. In personally masculine forms of the nominative plural, consonant alternations occur: ch — š, t — ć, d — dź, l — ł before the ending -i; with similar alternations k — c, h — z, this ending itself is replaced with -y:wulki (“big”) →wulcy (“big” plural),nahi (“naked”) →nazy (“naked” plural), etc. In Upper Sorbian, there are no short forms of adjectives.
Forms of the comparative (komparatiw) and superlative (superlatiw) degrees are formed only from relative-qualitative adjectives. The comparative form is made using the suffixes -ši and -iši/-yši (-yši appears after the consonantsc, z, s). Some comparative forms are formed suppletively:wulki “big” →wjetši,mały “small” →mjeńši,dobry “good” →lěpši,zły “bad” →hórši,dołhi “long” →dlěši. The superlative form is made by adding the prefix naj- to the comparative form. In addition to the synthetic method of forming degrees of comparison, there is also an analytic one, in which the comparative form is made by adding to the positive form the adverbbóle, and the superlative —najbóle.
Numeral
Upper Sorbian numerals (ličbniki,numerale) are divided into the following categories:
cardinal (kardinalne,zakładne);
ordinal (ordinalne,rjadowe);
collective (kolektiwne) — used withpluralia tantum nouns:jedne,dwoje,troje,štwore,pjećore,šesćore;
species (diferinciske) — indicating qualitative differentiation:jenaki,dwojaki,trojaki,štworaki,pjećoraki;
Under the influence of the German language, in colloquial Upper Sorbian, the numeraljedyn is often used in the function of an indefinite article.
Declension of the numeralstwo,three,four,five:
Case
Two
Three
Four
Five
Personally masculine forms
Non-personally masculine forms
Neuter and feminine
Personally masculine forms
Non-personally masculine forms
Personally masculine forms
Non-personally masculine forms
Personally masculine forms
Non-personally masculine forms
Nominative
dwajo
dwaj
dwě
třo
tři
štyrjo
štyri
pjećo
pjeć
Genitive
dwejoch
dweju
třoch
štyrjoch
pjećoch
Dative
dwejom
dwěmaj
třom
štyrjom
pjećom
Accusative
dweju (dwejoch)
dweju
dwě
třoch
tři
štyrjoch
štyri
pjećoch
pjeć
Instrumental
dwejomi
dwěmaj
třomi
štyrjomi
pjećomi
Locative
dwejoch
dwěmaj
třoch
štyrjoch
pjećoch
The personally masculine forms of the numeral “two”, except for the accusative case formdweju, are colloquial in nature. Numerals from 6 to 99 decline likefive.Thousand,million, andbillion decline like nouns. Numerals starting fromfive decline only when used independently; when used in a phrase, they do not decline.
Negative (zaprěwace,negatiwne): formed with the prefix ni- from interrogatives:nichtó “nobody,”ničo “nothing,”ničeji “no one’s,”nikajki “no kind of,”nihdy “never,”nihdźe “nowhere”
Indefinite (bjezmězne,indefinitne): formed with the prefix ně- from interrogatives:něchtó “someone,”něšto “something,”něčeji “someone’s,”někajki “some kind of,”něhdy “sometime,”něhdźe “somewhere”
Adverbs (adwerby, přisłowjesniki) in the Upper Sorbian language are divided into determinative (determinatiwne) and circumstantial (adwerby wobstejenja). The former are further divided into qualitative (kwalitatiwne), which define an action or state from the point of view of quality (krasnje — “beautifully,”derje — “hard,”ćicho — “quietly”), and quantitative (kwantitatiwne).
Adverbs are formed from adjectives using the suffixes-e,-o, and-i. The most productive suffix is-e:słabje (“weakly”),hrubje (“roughly”),wědomje (“consciously”),měrliwje (“peacefully”),nahle (“suddenly,” “sharply”),mile (“gently,” “kindly”),twjerdźe (“firmly,” “strictly”),rjenje (“beautifully,” “well”),čisće (“cleanly,” “brightly”), etc. The suffix-o predominates in the position after velar consonants:ćicho (“quietly”),sucho (“dryly”),rědko (“thinly,” “rarely”),droho (“expensively”),lochko (“easily”),šěroko (“widely”), etc. Less often after velar consonants appears the suffix-e:hłuboce (alongsidehłuboko) (“deeply”),wusce (alongsidewusko) (“narrowly,” “tightly”),słódce (alongsidesłódko) (“sweetly”), etc. Unlike the forms with-e, the forms with-o can have a predicative function.
Determinative adverbs can form degrees of comparison — comparative (komparatiw) and superlative (superlatiw). The comparative degree is usually formed by adding the suffix-(i)šo/-(y)šo to the base:słabje —słabšo,sylnje —sylnišo. From adverbs ending in-ko and-sko, comparative forms are formed using the suffixes-e and-šo:blisko —bliže/blišo,hłuboko —hłubje/hłubšo. The forms with-e have an archaic flavor. From some adverbs, the comparative degree is suppletive:derje —lěpje (“hard” — “better”),zlě —hórje (“bad” — “worse”),dołho —dlěje (“long” — “longer”),mało —mjenje (“little” — “less”),wjele/mnoho —wjace (“much” — “more”). The superlative degree is formed by attaching the prefixnaj- to the comparative form:słabšo —najsłabšo,sylnišo —najsylnišo.
Verb
The Upper Sorbian language is characterized by verb categories (werb, słowjeso) such as tense (tempus, čas), mood, aspect (aspekt, wid), voice, person (wosoba), number, and gender. Within the tense category, besides present and future forms, there are forms of several past tenses: perfect, synthetic preterite, pluperfect, and iterative preterite. The preterite is a historical past tense used in narration. The pluperfect indicates an action that occurred before some moment in the past. The iterative preterite indicates repeated actions in the past. Upper Sorbian has a peculiar implementation of aspect (perfective or imperfective), and like many Slavic languages, has active and passive voices, three moods (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive), forms for first, second, and third person in singular, dual, or plural; grammatical gender is expressed only in some verb forms.
Depending on the stem vowel in the present tense form (-e-,-i-, and-a-), verbs in Upper Sorbian are divided into three conjugation classes. Verb forms are formed from infinitive or present tense stems, except for a small number of preterite forms and nominal forms with special stems. In personal verb forms, corresponding personal pronouns are usually omitted (they are used only to emphasize person and number). When addressing a single person formally (“you” polite), the verb form in analytical constructions is used in the plural, while the nominal components remain singular.
Present tense
Present tense (prezent) forms in Upper Sorbian are formed synthetically. Perfective verbs may express an action performed constantly or at the current moment, sometimes repeatedly and each time completed, and also an action in the future if additionally expressed by lexical means, or in the past (also with imperfective verbs — the so-called “historical present”).
Besides the verbs of the three conjugation classes, there also exist specially conjugated so-called irregular verbs, such asbyć (“to be”) —ja sym;ty sy;wón, wone (wono), wona je;mój smój;wój staj/stej;wonaj/wonej staj/stej;my smy;wy sće;woni/wone su;měć (“to have”),chcyć (“to want”),dać (“to give”),hić (“to go”),jěć (“to ride/go by vehicle”),jěsć (“to eat”),směć (“to dare”),spać (“to sleep”),wědźeć (“to know”)
Future tense
Excluding the synthetically formed future tense forms of the verbsbyć —budu,budźeš…,měć (“to have”) —změju,změješ…, verbs of directed motion (hić (“to go”) —póńdu,póńdźeš…,njesć (“to carry”) —ponjesu,ponjeseš…,lězć (“to climb”),wjezć (“to drive/transport”),běžeć (“to run”),ćahnyć (“to pull”)), etc., all future tense forms of verbs are formed analytically by combining the personal forms of the auxiliary verbbyć in the future tense (budu,budźeš,budźe, etc.) with the infinitive of the main verb. In the literary language, analytic forms are formed only from imperfective verbs —budu warić (“I will cook”), while in colloquial speech analytic forms can also be formed from perfective verbs —budu zwarić.
Examples of conjugation of the verbpić (“to drink”) in the future tense:
Person
Singular
Dual
Plural
1st
budu pić
budźemoj pić
budźemy pić
2nd
budźeš pić
budźetaj/budźetej pić
budźeće pić
3rd
budźe pić
budźetaj/budźetej pić
budu/budź(ej)a pić
Perfect tense
Perfect forms are formed using the personal forms of the verbbyć in the present tense and the -l- participle of the main verb. The perfect denotes an action in the past that still retains a connection to the present. The perfect is obligatorily used when the time of the action occurs before the described situation; in other cases, the perfect is used alongside the synthetic preterite. The perfect can also express an action that will be completed by some point in the future.
Examples of conjugation of the perfect forms of the verbdźěłać (“to work”):
A number of participles have stems with-d-,-t-,-s-,-st-,-k-, and-h-:jědł fromjěsć (“to eat”),mjetł frommjesć (“to sweep”),pasł frompasć (“to pasture/graze”),rostł fromrosć (“to grow”),pjekł frompjec (“to bake”),móhł frommóc (“to be able to/can”), etc.
From the verbhić (“to go”), participles are formed from a special stem:šoł,šla,šłoj,šli,šłe.
Synthetic preterite
The forms of the synthetic preterite express the completion of an action in the past, the connection of which with the present is not felt. In the 2nd and 3rd person singular, perfective verbs take endings of the old aorist, while imperfective verbs take imperfect endings. These forms may be formed from different stems — from the infinitive, from the present tense stem, and from a special stem with the formative-(j)a. In colloquial speech, perfect forms are often used instead of them..
Examples of conjugation of the verbswuknyć (“to study, learn”) andnawuknyć (“to learn/completely study”) in the synthetic preterite:
Person
Singular
Dual
Plural
1st
wuknjech,nawuknych
wuknjechmoj,nawuknychmoj
wuknjechmy,nawuknychmy
2nd
wuknješe,nawukny
wuknještaj/-štej,nawuknyštaj/-štej
wuknješe,nawuknyše
3rd
wuknješe,nawukny
wuknještaj/-štej,nawuknyštaj/-štej
wuknjechu,nawuknychu
Pluperfect
The pluperfect (past perfect) is formed analytically using the verbbyć in the preterite form and the-l- participle of the main verb, indicating a completed action that preceded some situation in the past
Examples of conjugation of the pluperfect forms of the verbdźěłać (“to work”):
Forms of the iterative preterite, which denote repeated events in the past, coincide with the forms of the subjunctive mood,
Subjunctive mood
Forms of the verb in the subjunctive mood are formed using the aorist forms of the auxiliary verbbyć and the-l- participle of the main verb. In colloquial Upper Sorbian, the verbbyć in the subjunctive mood loses its personal endings, and the formby is the same for all persons. Modal verbs can form subjunctive forms even without the personal forms ofbyć ,
Examples of conjugation of the verbdźěłać (“to work”) in the subjunctive mood:
Previously, forms of the subjunctive mood in the past tense were also used, formed with the verbbyć in the imperfect from the stembud-:budźech,budźeše,budźechmoj,budźeštaj,budźeštej,budźechmy,budźešće,budźechu.
Imperative mood
Forms of the verb in the imperative mood are formed from the present tense stem. Examples of conjugation of the verbwzać (“to take”) in the imperative mood:wozmi (“take!”) with the ending-i after groups of consonants, and also a zero ending is possible —kupuj (“buy”) (2nd person singular);wozmimoj,wozmitaj/-tej (1st and 2nd person dual, where in the 2nd person masculine personal forms mostly end with-taj, and others with-tej);wozmimy,wozmiće (1st and 2nd person plural).
When forming imperative verb forms, consonant changes occur in the stem:-d-,-t-,-k- change to-dź-,-ć-,-č-;-n- changes to-ń-;-s- and-z- change to-š- and-ž-. Some verbs have irregular imperative forms:jěs (“eat”),daj (“give”), and others. Indicative mood forms with the particlenjech replace nonexistent 1st person singular and 3rd person imperative forms in all numbers.
Person
Singular
Dual
Plural
1st
buch přeprošeny/-a/-e
buchmoj přeprošenaj
buchmy přeprošene/-ni
2nd
bu přeprošeny/-a/-e
buštaj/štej přeprošenaj/-ej
bušće přeprošene/-ni
3rd
bu přeprošeny/-a/-e
buštaj/štej přeprošenaj/-ej
buchu přeprošene/-ni
Direct passiveforms compete with, on one hand, constructions of the same participles with-n-/-t- combined with forms of the verbbyć in any tense (including past — from the stembě-:běch přeprošeny (“I was invited”), but alsosym přeprošeny (“I am invited”),budu přeprošeny (“I will be invited”)), which express a state; and on the other hand — active voice forms with the reflexive particleso, e.g.:z uniwersity Lwow na Ukrainje přeprosy so delegacija na ekskursiju do Łužicy (“A delegation was invited from the University of Lviv in Ukraine for an excursion to Lusatia”). The passive or active meaning of such forms is determined by context.
Indirect passive forms are formed with personal forms of the verbsdóstać (“to receive”),dóstawać (“to be receiving”) and the participle of the main verb with-n-/-t- . In colloquial speech, the passive voice is expressed by constructions with the German loan verbwordować ("to become").
Verb aspects
Alongside imperfective and perfective verbs forming aspectual pairs, Upper Sorbian has verbs without aspectual pairs (single-aspect verbs) and verbs whose imperfective and perfective meanings are expressed by one lexeme (double-aspect verbs). Aspectual pairs are mostly formed by prefixes and suffixes.
Most non-prefixed verbs are imperfective:dźěłać (“to work”),warić (“to boil”),słyšeć (“to hear”), etc. Only a small part are perfective. Perfective verbs are mainly formed from imperfective non-prefixed verbs by prefixation:rězać (“to cut”) —zarězać (“to cut down, slaughter”),stajeć (“to put”) —zestajeć (“to compose, put together”), etc. Paired imperfective verbs can be formed from prefixed perfective verbs by suffixes-owa-/-uj,-wa- or-a- (-ě-):zapisać (“to write down”) —zapisować (“to be writing down”),wubrać (“to choose”) —wuběrać (“to be choosing”), etc. Secondary prefixation is also possible:zabić (“to kill”) —dozabić (“to finish killing”).
Under German influence in colloquial Upper Sorbian, present tense forms of perfective verbs may be used with an actual present meaning, which is not permitted in the literary language.
Participles and gerunds
Upper Sorbian includes the following participial forms:
Active present participle: formed from the short present stem with suffix-ac(y) or from the infinitive stem with suffix-c(y) (rarely-uc(y)):pisacy (“writing”),słyšacy (“hearing”), etc.
Present gerund: formed from the short or extended present stem of imperfective verbs with suffix-o, rarely-(i)cy,-ucy:njeso (“leading”),kopajo/kopajcy (“digging”), etc.
Passive participle: formed from the infinitive stem or full present stem with suffixes-n(y) or-t(y):wuknjeny (“being studied”),nawuknjeny (“studied”),wupity (“drunk”), etc.
Past gerund: formed from the infinitive stem of perfective verbs with ending-wši or from the present stem with ending-ši:rozkopawši (“having dug”),zdźěławši (“having worked out”),zamjetši (“having swept”), etc.
In colloquial Upper Sorbian and dialects, present gerunds are very rarely used or absent, and past gerunds are not used at all.
Infinitive
The infinitive in Upper Sorbian is formed with the suffix-ć, except verbs with stems ending in-k,-h:pjec (“to bake”),rjec (“to say”),móc (“to be able”). Like in most other Slavic languages, the supine (preserved in Lower Sorbian) has been replaced by the infinitive in Upper Sorbian.
Verbal noun
Verbal nouns are formed with the suffix-(j)e from the participle stem with-n-/-t- :wuknjenje (“learning”),słyšenje (“hearing”).
Prepositions
Prepositions (prepozicije,předłóžki) in Upper Sorbian are divided into primary and secondary:
Primary prepositions (prěnjotne,primarne) used exclusively as prepositions:bjez (“without”),dla (“because of, for”),do (“to, until, behind, before”, etc.),k (“to, for”),mjez (“between”),na (“on, about, for, at”),nad (“above”),po (“after, along”),pod (“under, near”),podłu (“along”),pola (“near”),porno (“next to, alongside”),pře (“against, because of”),před (“before, until, from”),při (“at”),spod (“from under”),w (“in, into”),wo (“about”),wob (“through, during”),wot (“from”),z (“from, out of”),za (“behind, instead of, for”),zeza (“because of”), etc.
Secondary prepositions (druhotne,sekundarne), derived from full words and not yet fully detached from them:blisko (“nearby”),dale (“beyond”),nimo (“except”),niže (“below”),njedaloko (“nearby”),spody (“under”),srjedź (“among”),wyše (“above”),zady (“behind”),zboka (“beside”),zespody (“from below”).
Primary prepositions ending with consonants (e.g.,w,z,k,bjez,přez,wot,nad,pod,mjez,před) may vocalize — add a vowel-e (or-y formjez) at the end if the following word starts with a consonant cluster or a consonant of the same place of articulation, e.g.ze wšeho (“from all”),wote dnja (“from the day”),we wodźe (“in water”),ke choremu (“to the sick one”).
Particles
Like prepositions or conjunctions, particles (časćicy,partikle) in Upper Sorbian are divided into primary and secondary.
Functionally, particles are divided into word-forming, form-building, and modal particles.
SyntaxUpper Sorbian syntax has the following features:
A characteristic feature distinguishing Upper Sorbian from most other Slavic languages is the order of main components in a simple sentence: Subject – Object – Verb (S–O–V):Naš dźěd drjewo kała (“Our grandfather chops wood”);Ludźo so wjelkow boja (“People are afraid of wolves”). If the predicate is compound, the auxiliary verb follows the subject, and the nominal part is at the end:Dobru chwilu bě hišće jich hołk a dźiwi spěw słyšeć (wherebě is auxiliary,słyšeć is nominal part — “For quite a while their wild shouting and strange singing were still heard”). This syntactic construction is called frame construction.
Presence of a copula in sentences with nominal predicate:Nan je doma (“Father is at home”);Ja sym strowy (“I am healthy”).
The second position (after the first stressed word or phrase) in a sentence is often occupied by short forms of reflexive and personal pronouns:mje,mi,će,ći,jón,je,ju,so,sej, as well as some conjunctions and particles:drje (“really”),pak (“just”),wšak (“however”), etc. For example:Hač drje waša mać bórze přińdźe? (“Will your mother really come soon?”). The reflexive particleso can also occupy the second position, with the main verb at the sentence end:Ja so přez tón dar wjeselu (“I am happy about this gift”). Or immediately after the main verb:Ja wjeselu so přez tón dar (“I am happy about this gift”).
When a modifier consists of a noun in genitive singular followed by an adjective or possessive pronoun agreeing with it and placed after the modified noun (Dźěći mojeho bratra — “My brother’s children”;Drasta stareje žony — “The old woman’s dress”), changing the modifier to be before the modified noun causes the genitive noun to become a possessive adjective with suffixes-owy-/-iny-:Mojeho bratrowe dźěći (literally “my brother’s children”);Stareje žonina drasta (“old woman’s dress”). Possessive adjectives with these suffixes are considered a separate part of speech — possessives — in modern Upper Sorbian grammar (G. Faska).
The nominal part of compound predicates expressed by a noun in instrumental case is very rare; expressed by an adjective it never stands in the instrumental:Wowka so wróći strowa (“Grandmother returned healthy”).
Use of constructions with accusative noun + infinitive:Wutrobu čuješe spěšnje kłapać (“He felt his heart beating fast”). Verbs likestać (“stand”),ležeć (“lie”),sedźeć (“sit”),spać (“sleep”),tčeć (“be located, stick out”) do not occur in such constructions with infinitive; instead, present gerund is used.
Genitive case forms with negation are very rare, mainly used in colloquial Upper Sorbian after the particleani:Ani slowa wón njepraji (“He did not say a word”).
Negation of the copula uses nominative case forms:Wón tu njeje (“He is not here”, literally “He here not is”).
Nouns take nominative case if two or more adjectives modify them:Serbski a ruski lud (“The Sorbian and Russian peoples”).
Family names in the genitive of possession precede the modified word:Markec swójba (“The Markec family”).
When the modifier follows the modified noun (Wuměnjenja, přijomne za nas — “Conditions pleasant for us”), changing the modifier to precede the noun reverses the word order inside the modifier group:Za nas přijomne wuměnjenja (“For us pleasant conditions”).
The relative pronounkotryž,kotrež,kotraž (“which”) in the genitive stands before the modified noun:To je ta stwa, kotrejež wokna do zahrodki hladaja (“This is the room whose windows look into the garden”).
Vocabulary
As a result of long contacts with the German language (for about 1000 years), Upper Sorbian has borrowed a large number of Germanic lexical items, with their number being higher in dialectal speech than in the literary language. At the same time, the core lexical stock of Upper Sorbian remains Slavic — H. Bilfeldt counts no more than 2000 German words among the most common borrowings. Besides direct borrowings, the literary language also contains calques from German words —ćah (“train”) < GermanZug,stawizny (“history”) < GermanGeschichte,wócny kraj (“fatherland”) < GermanVaterland, and so on. Some German borrowings often differ significantly from words in contemporary German, as they entered Upper Sorbian relatively early; for example, the verbcwiblować (“to doubt”) was borrowed fromMiddle High Germanzwivelen, which differs from the modern Germanzweifeln, changed after the diphthongization ofi. There are also borrowings from other Slavic languages, primarily fromCzech (strój (“machine”) < Czechstroj,basnik (“poet”) < Czechbásník,dźiwadło (“theatre”) < Czechdivadlo,hudźba (“music”) < Czechhudba, etc.), though these are generally restricted to the literary language.
Examples of lexical differences between spoken and literary language:
O zemja serbska! twoju nož chcu chwalić rolu, chcu chroble sławić twoje městna starodawne a wožiwjować twojich synow mjena sławne, njech wutroba tež rozkoći so z dźiwjej bolu.
O zemja serbska! z kuzłom swojim moju wolu bróń, zo bych wotkrył starych časow slědy krwawne a słyšał, kak so z njebjes woła myto sprawne na cuzu złósć přez twoje hory, hona, holu.
O zemja serbska! chwalić twoje płódne hona chcu, hory módre, spěwow cunjozrudne hrona a sławić ćichu nadobnosć chcu twojoh' ludu.
O zemja serbska! nihdy tebje njezabudu! Twój wobraz widźu w myslenju a wosrjedź sona mi twoje mjeno klinci kaž zwuk jasnoh' zwona.
O Sorb land! Your fields I want to praise, boldly to honor your ancient towns, and to revive the glorious names of your sons, even if my heart breaks from wild pain.
O Sorb land! With your magic defend my will, that I may uncover bloody traces of old times, and hear how from the heavens calls the just reward against the enemy’s malice across your mountains, fields, and forests.
O Sorb land! I want to praise your fertile fields, blue mountains, the sad melodies of songs, and to glorify the quiet nobility of your people.
O Sorb land! I will never forget you! I see your image in thoughts and in the midst of dreams, your name sounds to me like the clear ringing of a bell.
Wótče naš, kiž sy w njebjesach. Swjeć so Twoje mjeno. Přińdź Twoje kralestwo. Stań so Twoja wola, kaž na njebju, tak na zemi. Wšědny chlěb naš daj nam dźens. Wodaj nam naše winy, jako my tež wodawamy swojim winikam. A njewjedź nas do spytowanja, ale wumóž nas wot złeho. Amen.
Wšitcy čłowjekojo su wot naroda swobodni a su jenacy po dostojnosći a prawach. Woni su z rozumom a swědomjom wobdarjeni a maja mjezsobu w duchu bratrowstwa wobchadźeć.
(All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.)[53]
^Šewc-Schuster (1984:36–37, 41, 46). On page 36, the author states that Upper Sorbian/w/ is less velar than Polish/w/. The weakness of the velarization is confirmed by the corresponding image on page 37.
Ross, Malcom. 2020. Syntax and contact-induced language change. In A. Grant (ed.)The Oxford Handbook of Language Contact. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 123–154. [Upper Sorbian and German contact, with resulting changes in Sorbian]
Stone, Gerald (2002), "Sorbian (Upper and Lower)", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.),The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 593–685,ISBN9780415280785
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