Upāli | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Upāli,Bodh Gaya, India | |
| Personal life | |
| Known for | Expertise inmonastic discipline, reviewed monastic discipline during theFirst Council |
| Other names | 'repository of the discipline' (Pali:Vinaye agganikkhitto; 'foremost in discipline' (Pali:Vinaya-pāmokkha) |
| Religious life | |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| School | all, but mostly discussed inPāli Buddhism |
| Lineage | Vinayadhara |
| Initiation | Anupiyā by the Buddha |
| Senior posting | |
| Teacher | TheBuddha, Kappitaka |
| Period in office | Early Buddhism |
| Successor | Dāsaka |
Students
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Upāli (Sanskrit andPāli) was a monk, one of theten chief disciples of theBuddha[1] and, according toearly Buddhist texts, the person in charge of the reciting and reviewing ofmonastic discipline (Pāli andSanskrit:vinaya) on theFirst Buddhist Council. Upāli belongs to the barber community. He met the Buddha when still a child, and later, when theSakya princes receivedordination, he did so as well. He was ordained before the princes, putting humility before caste. Having been ordained, Upāli learnt both Buddhist doctrine (Pali:Dhamma;Sanskrit:Dharma) andvinaya. Hispreceptor was Kappitaka. Upāli became known for his mastery and strictness ofvinaya and was consulted often aboutvinaya matters. A notable case he decided was that of the monk Ajjuka, who was accused of partisanship in a conflict about real estate. During the First Council, Upāli received the important role of reciting thevinaya, for which he is mostly known.
Scholars have analyzed Upāli's role and that of other disciples in the early texts, and it has been suggested that his role in the texts was emphasized during a period of compiling that stressed monastic discipline, during whichMahākassapa (Sanskrit:Mahākāśyapa) and Upāli became the most important disciples. Later, Upāli and his pupils became known asvinayadharas (Pāli; 'custodians of the vinaya'), who preserved the monastic discipline after the Buddha'sparinibbāna (Sanskrit:parinirvāṇa; passing into final Nirvana). This lineage became an important part of the identity ofCeylonese and Burmese Buddhism. In China, the 7th-century Vinaya school referred to Upāli as their patriarch, and it was believed that one of their founders was a reincarnation of him. The technical conversations aboutvinaya between the Buddha and Upāli were recorded in the Pāli andSarvāstivāda traditions and have been suggested as an important subject of study for modern-day ethics inAmerican Buddhism.
Upāli's personality is not depicted extensively in the texts, as the texts mostly emphasize his stereotypical qualities as an expert in monastic discipline, especially so in thePāli texts.[2]
According to the texts, Upāli was a barber, a despised profession in ancient India.[3][4] He was from an artisan class family in service to theSakya princes inKapilavatthu (Sanskrit:Śakya; Kapilavastu) and, according to theMahāvastu, to the Buddha. Upāli's mother had once introduced Upāli to the Buddha.[5] TheMahāvastu,Dharmaguptaka and Chinese texts relate that as a child, Upāli shaved the hair of the Buddha. Unlike adults, he had no fear of approaching the Buddha. Once, as he was guided by the Buddha during the shaving, he attainedadvanced states of meditation. BuddhologistAndré Bareau argues that this story is ancient, because it precedes the tradition of art depictions of the Buddha with curly hair, and the glorification of Upāli as an adult.[6]
According to the Mahāvastu, the PāliCullavagga and the texts of discipline of theMūlasarvāstivāda order, when the princes left home to become monks, Upāli followed them. Since the princes handed Upāli all their possessions, including jewelry, he worried that returning to Kapilavatthu with these possessions might cause him to be accused of having killed the princes for theft. Upāli therefore decided to become ordained with them. They were ordained by the Buddha at theAnupiyā grove.[7] Several variations on the story of Upāli's ordination exist, but all of them emphasize that his status in thesaṅgha (Sanskrit:saṃgha; monastic community) was independent of his caste origin. In the Pāli version, the princes, includingAnuruddha (Sanskrit:Aniruddha), voluntarily allowed Upāli to ordain before them in order to give him seniority in order of ordination and abandon their own attachment to class and social status.[8]
In the Tibetan Mūlasarvāstivāda version of the story, co-discipleSāriputta (Sanskrit:Śāriputra) persuaded Upāli to become ordained when he hesitated because of being lower class, but in theMahāvastu, it was Upāli's own initiative.[8][5] TheMahāvastu continues that after all the monks had been ordained, the Buddha requested that the former princes bow for their former barber, which led to consternation among the witnessing kingBimbisāra and advisers, who also bowed for Upāli following their example.[9] It became widely known that the Sakyans had their barber ordained before them to humble their pride,[10] as the Buddha related aJātaka tale that the king and advisers had bowed for Upāli in a previous life, too.[9][11]
IndologistT.W. Rhys Davids noted that Upāli was the "striking proof of the reality of the effect produced by Gautama's disregard of the supposed importance of class".[12] HistorianH.W. Schumann also raises Upāli as an example of the general rule that "in no case did ... humble origins prevent a monk from becoming prominent in theOrder".[13] Religion scholar Jeffrey Samuels points out, though, that the majority of Buddhist monks andnuns during the time of the Buddha, as drawn from several analyses of Buddhist texts, were from higher classes, with a minority of six percent like Upāli being exception to the rule.[14] Historian Sangh Sen Singh argues that Upāli could have been the leader of thesaṅgha after the Buddha'sparinibbāna instead ofMahākassapa (Sanskrit:parinirvāṇa, Mahākāśyapa). But the fact that he was from humble origins effectively prevented this, as many of the Buddhist devotees at the time might have objected to his leadership position.[15]
Upāli had a dwelling place inVesāli (Sanskrit:Vaiśāli), called Vālikārāma.[16][17] He once asked the Buddha for leave to withdraw in the forest and lead a life in solitude. The Buddha refused, however, and told him that such a life was not for everyone. Pāli scholarGunapala Malalasekera argued that the Buddha wanted Upāli to learn both meditation and Buddhist doctrine, and a life in the forest would have provided him with only the former. The texts state that the Buddha himself taught thevinaya (monastic discipline) to Upāli.[18] Upāli later attained the state of anenlightened disciple.[5][19]
According to the Mahāvastu, thepreceptor who completed the process of Upāli'sacceptance in thesaṅgha was a monk called Kappitaka.[20][note 1] There is one story told about Upāli and his preceptor. Kappitaka was in the habit of living in cemeteries. In one cemetery near Vesāli he had amonastic cell. One day, a couple of nuns built a small monument there in honor of their teacher, also a nun, and made much noise in the process. Disturbed by the nuns, Kappitaka destroyed the monument, which greatly angered the nuns. Later, in an attempt to kill Kappitaka, they destroyed his cell in return. But Kappitaka was warned by Upāli in advance and he had already fled elsewhere.[22] The next day, Upāli was verbally abused by the nuns for having informed his teacher.[23]
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In the literature of every Buddhist school, Upāli is depicted as an expert invinaya and thepāṭimokkha (Sanskrit:pratimokṣa; monastic code),[5] for which the Buddha declared himforemost among those who remember the vinaya (Pali:Vinaya-pāmokkha;Sanskrit:Vinayapramukkha).[24][25] He was therefore dubbed the 'repository of the discipline' (Pali:Vinaye agganikkhitto).[19] In some schools, he is also seen as an expert in theprecepts of abodhisatta (Sanskrit:bodhisattva; Buddha-to-be).[5] 5th-century commentatorBuddhaghosa stated that Upāli drew up instructions and explanatory notes for monks dealing with disciplinary matters.[19]
Upāli was also known for his strictness in practicing the discipline.[26] Monks considered it a privilege to study thevinaya under him.[27] At times, monks who felt repentance and wanted to improve themselves, sought his advice. In other cases, Upāli was consulted in making decisions considering alleged offenses of monastic discipline. For example, one newly ordained nun was found pregnant, and was judged by the monkDevadatta as unfit to be a nun. However, the Buddha had Upāli do a second investigation, during which Upāli called upon the help of the laywomanVisakhā and several other laypeople. Eventually, Upāli concluded the nun had conceived the child by her husband before her ordination as a nun, and therefore was innocent. The Buddha later praised Upāli for his careful consideration of this matter.[28]
Other notable cases about which Upāli decided are that of the monks Bharukaccha and Ajjuka. Bharukaccha consulted Upāli whether dreaming about having sex with a woman amounted to an offense that required disrobing, and Upāli judged it did not. As for the monk Ajjuka, he had decided about a dispute about real estate.[29] In this case, a rich householder was in doubt as to who he should will his inheritance to, his pious nephew or his own son. He asked Ajjuka to invite for an audience the person who had the most faith of the two—Ajjuka invited the nephew. Angry about the decision, the son accused Ajjuka of partisanship and went to see the monkĀnanda. Ānanda disagreed with Ajjuka's decision, judging the son the more rightful heir, and causing the son to feel justified in accusing Ajjuka of not being a "true monk". When Upāli got involved, however, he judged in favor of Ajjuka. He pointed out to Ānanda that the act of inviting a layperson did not break monastic discipline.[30] Eventually, Ānanda agreed with Upāli, and Upāli was able to settle the issue.[31][32] Here, too, the Buddha praised Upāli for his handling of the case.[33] Law scholarAndrew Huxley noted that Upāli's judgment of this case allowed monks to engage on an ethical level with the world, whereas Ānanda's judgment did not.[34]
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According to thechronicles, Upāli had been ordained (or, was aged[35]) forty-four years at the time of theFirst Buddhist Council.[36] At the council, Upāli was asked to recite thevinaya of monks and nuns, including thepāṭimokkha,[37], and theVinayapiṭaka (collection of texts on monastic discipline) was compiled based thereon.[38] Specifically, Upāli was asked about each rule issued by the Buddha as to what it was about, where it was issued, with regard to whom, the formulation of the rule itself, derived secondary rules, and the conditions under which the rule was broken.[39] According to theMahāsaṃghika account of the First Council, Upāli was the one who charged Ānanda, the former attendant of the Buddha, with several offenses of wrongdoing.[40]
Upāli had a number of pupils, who were called thesattarasavaggiyā.[41] Upāli and his pupils were entrusted with thesafekeeping and reciting of this collection of monastic discipline.[42] Sixteen years after the Buddha'spassing away, Upāli ordained a pupil called Dāsaka, who would become his successor with regard to expertise in monastic discipline. According to the late PāliDīpavaṃsa, Upāli died at the age of seventy-four, if this age is interpreted as life-span, not years of ordination.[35]
In some Buddhist texts, an explanation is offered why a low-caste born monk would have such a central role in developing monastic law. The question that might have been raised is whether issuing laws would not normally be associated with kings. TheApadāna explains this by relating that Upāli had been an all-powerfulwheel-turning king for thousand previous lives, and a king of thedeities in another thousand lives.[43] Before that, the texts say he was born during the age ofPadumuttara Buddha and met one of thatBuddha's disciples who was foremost in monastic discipline. Upāli aspired to be like him, and pursued it through doingmerits.[19][44]
Despite Upāli's previous lives as a king, he was born as a low caste barber in the time ofGotama Buddha. This is also explained in anApadāna story: in a previous life, Upāli insulted apaccekabuddha (Sanskrit:pratyekabuddha; a type of Buddha). The evilkarma brought about low birth.[19][44]
Upāli was the focus of worship in ancient and medieval India and was regarded as the "patron saint" of monks who specialize in thevinaya.[5][45] He is one of theeight enlightened disciples, and is honored in Burmese ceremonies.[5][46]
Several scholars have contended that the prominence of certain of the Buddha's disciples in the early texts is indicative of the preference of the compilers. BuddhologistJean Przyluski argued that Upāli's prominence in the Pāli texts is indicative of the preference of theSthaviravādins forvinaya abovediscourse, whereas the prominence of Ānanda in the Mūlasarvāstivāda texts is indicative of their preference for discourse abovevinaya.[47][48] This preference of the compilers has also affected how Ānanda addresses Upāli. In many of the early discourses Upāli has little to no role, and he is not mentioned among many early lists of significant disciples. He is, however, frequently mentioned in lists in theVinaya-piṭaka, which proves the point. Upāli seems to obtain a much more significant role with the end of the Buddha's life.[49] Przyluski's theory, which was further developed by BuddhologistAndré Migot, regardedMahākassapa (Sanskrit:Mahākāśyapa), Upāli andAnuruddha (Sanskrit:Aniruddha) as part of the second period in the compiling of the early texts (4th to early 3rd century BCE) that emphasizedmoral discipline, associated with these disciples, as well as the city ofVesālī (Sanskrit:Vaiśalī).[note 2] In this period, these disciples' roles and stories were emphasized and embellished more than other disciples.[51] These differences in schools gradually developed and became stereotyped over time.[52]
Upāli's successors formed alineage called thevinayadharas, or the 'custodians of the vinaya'.[53][54]Vinayadharas were monks who inearly Buddhist texts were particularly known for their mastery and strictness with regard to thevinaya. In 4th–5th-centuryCeylon, they then came to be associated with a lineage of such masters, because of the influence of Buddhaghosa, who established Upāli and the othervinayadharas as an important characteristic of theMahāvihāra tradition. This concept of avinayadhara lineage also affected Burma, and led to a belief that only those ordained in the proper lineage could becomevinayadharas. Gradually, thevinayadhara came to be seen a sign of superior tradition, as the lineage was integrated with local history. Even later, thevinayadhara became a formal position of judge and arbitrator in problems ofvinaya.[55]
Upāli's lineage has gained scholarly attention because of their way of timekeeping, known by modern scholars as the "dotted record". Chinese sources say that Upāli and his successors had a custom to insert a dot in a manuscript marking each year after the First Council. The sources claim that each of successors continued this tradition, up until 489 CE, when theSarvāstivāda scholarSaṃghabhadra entered the last dot in the manuscript. This tradition has been used by some modern scholars to calculate thepassing away of the Buddha, but has now been debunked as historically unlikely. Still, data pertaining to thevinayadharas is used to support theories regarding the dating of the Buddha's life and death, such as the one proposed by IndologistRichard Gombrich.[56]
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Not only in ancient India did certain lineages identify with Upāli. In 7th-century China, the Vinaya or Nan-shan School was founded by the monks Ku-hsin andTao-hsüan, seen as a continuation of Upāli's lineage. The school emphasized restoring and propagating thevinaya and became popular in the Pa Hwa Hills ofNanking. It developed a standard for teaching thevinaya. The monks would wear black and emphasized protecting oneself against error. It was believed at the time that Ku-hsin was a reincarnation of Upāli.[57]
In the Pāli tradition, numerous discourses show the Buddha and Upāli discussing matters of monastic discipline, including the legality of decision-making and assemblies, and the system of giving warnings and probation. Much of this is found in theParivāra, a latevinaya text.[19] Bareau has suggested the conversation between the Buddha and Upāli about schisms was the origin of the traditions about this subject in theVinayapiṭaka.[58] In thevinaya texts of the Sarvastivāda tradition, theUttragrantha[59] and the 5th-centuryMahāyāna-inspiredUpalipariprccha[60] feature similar to almost the same questions as the PāliPārivāra,[61] although the suggestion that the latter originates from a no longer extant Pāli text has not been proven.[62] The Turkistan Sanskrit version of theUttragrantha, on the other hand, does not match the Pāli at all.[61] With regard to these lists of questions, it is unknown which of these questions are from Upāli, and which were attributed to him because of his reputation.[19] Apart from these technical discussions, there is also a teaching given by Upāli referred to in the PāliMilindapañhā.[19] Religion scholar Charles Prebish has named theUpalipariprccha as one of twenty-two texts worthy of study and practice, in order to developAmerican Buddhist ethics.[63]
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