TheUnited States Space Force (USSF) is thespace service branch of theUnited States Department of Defense, and was established on 20 December 2019. It is one of the sixarmed forces of the United States and one of the eightuniformed services of the United States.[7] It is the secondindependent space force to have been formed, after theRussian Space Forces; together withthat of China, it is one of only two still extant.[8]
The United States Space Force traces its origins to the Air Force, Army, and Navy's military space programs created during the beginning of theCold War. US military space forces first participated in combat operations during theVietnam War and have participated in every U.S. military operation since, most notably in theGulf War, which has been referred to as the "first space war".[9] TheStrategic Defense Initiative and creation ofAir Force Space Command in the 1980s marked a renaissance for military space operations.
Proposals for a U.S. Space Force were first seriously considered during theReagan administration as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. Congress began exploring establishing a Space Corps or Space Force in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The idea of establishing a Space Force was revived in the late 2010s in response to Russian and Chinese military space developments, resulting in the Space Force's establishment on 20 December 2019 during thefirst Trump Administration.
The Space Force is organized as part of theDepartment of the Air Force alongside theU.S. Air Force, a coequal service. The Department of the Air Force is headed by the civiliansecretary of the Air Force, while the U.S. Space Force is led by thechief of space operations. The U.S. Space Force's status as part of the Department of the Air Force is intended to be an interim measure towards a fully independent Department of the Space Force, led by a civilian secretary of the Space Force.
Secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space.
— Mission statement of the United States Space Force[10]
The Space Force's statutory responsibilities are outlined in10 U.S.C. § 9081 and originally introduced in theUnited States Space Force Act, the Space Force is organized, trained, and equipped to:
TheDepartment of Defense further defines the specified functions of the Space Force to:[11]
The Space Force further breaks down its mission into three core functions, which align directly to its mission statement to "secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space:"
Space superiority defends against space and counterspace threats by protecting spacecraft in space or protecting against attacks enabled by adversary spacecraft, requiring that the Space Force establish control of the domain. The Space Force describes that at a time and place of the United States' choosing it must be able to assure continued use of spacecraft and deny adversaries use of their spacecraft or space-enabled capabilities.[10]
Missions that support space superiority includeorbital warfare,electromagnetic warfare, andspace battle management.[10]
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Global mission operations integrates joint functions across all domains (land, air, maritime, space, cyberspace) on a global space. Through space, the U.S. military and its allies can see, communicate, and navigate. Global mission operations also protect U.S. forces on Earth through early warning of incoming missiles and other types of attack. The Space Force describes global mission operations as allowing the rest of the U.S. military to defend the air, land, and sea.[10]
Missions that support global mission operations includemissile warning,satellite communications, andpositioning, navigation, and timing.[10]
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Assured space access ensures that the Space Force can deploy and sustain equipment in outer space. This includes space launches as well as controlling and steering spacecraft out of the way of oncoming space debris to avoid collisions. The Space Force describes assured access to space as being able to make sure it can continue launching and conducting space operations 24/7.[citation needed]
Missions supporting space access includelaunch, range control,cyber, andspace domain awareness.[10]
In the long haul, our safety as a nation may depend upon achieving "space superiority." Several decades from now, the important battles may not be sea battles or air battles, but space battles, and we should be spending a certain fraction of our national resources to ensure that we do not lag in obtaining space supremacy.
— Major GeneralBernard Schriever, 19 February 1957[10][12]
In theaftermath of World War II the Air Force started examining the potentials and risks of space. GeneralHenry H. Arnold, commander of theArmy Air Forces, tasked GeneralBernard Schriever to identify and develop technologies, with the scientific community, that could be beneficial for the newU.S. Air Force in the next global conflict.[10] Identifying the importance of space, theU.S. Army,U.S. Navy, and U.S. Air Force each started their own separate space and rocket programs. The U.S. Air Force created the first military space organization in the world, establishing theWestern Development Division in 1954 and placing it under the command of General Schriever.[13] The Army followed a year later, creating theArmy Ballistic Missile Agency under the leadership of GeneralJohn Bruce Medaris andWernher von Braun.[14]
The Army led the United States into space, launching the first American spacecraft,Explorer 1, on 31 January 1958.[10]Space exploration continued to be a military responsibility until theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration was created later that year.[15] The military shifted from conducting their own space exploration programs to supporting NASA's, providing the agency with itsastronauts andspace launch vehicles, while also conducting astronaut recovery and supporting space launches from the Air Force'sEastern Range.[15]
The Air Force was recognized as the lead military service for space by the early 1960s, with the Army and Navy operating in supporting roles. Early military space efforts were focused on developing and fielding spacecraft to accomplish national objectives, with a focus onweather,reconnaissance and surveillance,communications, andnavigation. On 18 August 1961, the Air Force andNational Reconnaissance Office launched the firstCORONA reconnaissance mission, recovering 3,000 feet (910 m) of film from space and imaging 1.65 million square miles (4,300,000 km2) of the Soviet Union's territory.[10]
Concerned about the development of the Soviet Union's own space forces, the Air Force advocated for a militaryhuman spaceflight program. GeneralCurtis LeMay described strong parallels betweenWorld War I aviation and 1960s space operations, noting how quickly flying evolved from chivalric and unarmedreconnaissance flights to combat efforts designed to destroy enemyair superiority. General LeMay believed that it was naive to believe that the same trends were not expected to be seen in space and must be prepared for. Although the Air Force made significant progress in developing theX-20spaceplane,Manned Orbiting Laboratory, andBlue Gemini, opposition from theDepartment of Defense prevented operational fielding.[citation needed]
In November 1968, theCentral Intelligence Agency reported a successful satellite destruction simulation performed by theSoviet Union as a part of itsIstrebitel Sputnikovanti-satellite weapons research programme.[16][17][18][19][20] Possibly as a response to the Soviet programme, the United States had earlier beganProject SAINT, which was intended to provide anti-satellite capability to be used in the case of war with the Soviet Union.[21][16][22] However the project was cancelled early on due to budget constraints and after details were leaked toThe New York Times in 1962.[22] Despite these setbacks, the Air Force did successfully field theProgram 437anti-satellite weapon system, which used nuclearThor missiles to intercept and destroy enemy spacecraft.[15]
Although most military space forces were organized under the Air Force, they were still fragmented within several different major commands. Recognizing rapid growth of space forces and the need to centralize them under one command, the Air Force establishedAir Force Space Command in 1982.[10] This was followed by the establishment of the jointUnited States Space Command in 1985, aligning Air Force Space Command,Naval Space Command, andArmy Space Command under a single operational commander. These two moves, along with theStrategic Defense Initiative's establishment by PresidentRonald Reagan, led to a renaissance of military space operations in the 1980s.[15]
Space forces were first used in combat operations during theVietnam War, with Air Force weather and communications spacecraft supporting ground, sea, and air operations.[15] DuringOperation Urgent Fury in Grenada, satellite communications were used to conduct command and control for the first time, whileOperation El Dorado Canyon andOperation Just Cause marked the first time that major U.S. forces incorporated information from space-based intelligence systems.[23]
ThePersian Gulf War marked the first time that military space forces were unleashed to their fullest extent. Over sixty spacecraft provided 90% oftheater communications andcommand and control for amultinational army of 500,000 troops,weather support for commanders and mission planners,missile warning of IraqiScud missile launches, and satellite navigation for air and land forces moving across a featureless desert.[15][24] The decisive role that space forces played directly enabled an overwhelming Coalition victory and led to the Persian Gulf War being coined "the first Space War."[25]
While U.S. space forces supported all U.S. military operations in the 1990s,Operation Allied Force marked the first use ofGlobal Positioning System-aided munitions in a conflict, ushering in a new era of precision bombing.[26] Following theSeptember 11 attacks, U.S. space forces mobilized to respond as part of theGlobal War on Terrorism,Operation Enduring Freedom,Operation Iraqi Freedom, andOperation Inherent Resolve.[27]
Creating a new military service...would be a dramatic step. Perhaps a "Space Corps" would be a step toward a Space Force. Maybe the Air Force will preempt these dramatic changes by truly becoming the "Space and Air Force."
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The idea of a separate service for space originated in the 1960s. Military space activities were briefly consolidated under theAdvanced Research Projects Agency in 1958, loosely centralizing space activities under a single organization. The Air Force, Army, and Navy feared that it would evolve into a "fourth service" for space, before authorities were returned to the service.[15]
The first direct call for a U.S. Space Force occurred in 1982, prior toAir Force Space Command's establishment or theStrategic Defense Initiative's public announcement. As part of a report recommending the acceleration U.S. space-basedlaser weapon development, theGovernment Accountability Office recommended the U.S. Air Force be reorganized as the U.S. Aerospace Force or that an independent U.S. Space Force be created.[28] Ultimately, a congressional proposal to rename the U.S. Air Force as the U.S. Aerospace Force and speculation that PresidentRonald Reagan may announce the creation of a U.S. Space Force accelerated Air Force plans to create a space command within the service.[15]
Following thePersian Gulf War, the Air Force and Defense Department declared that "space power has now become as important to the nation as land, sea, and air power." Despite this public pronouncement, a growing section of Congress believed that space was being shortchanged and used only as an auxiliary to air operations. In 1998, drawing parallels between the challenges faced bypost-World War I Army Aviators and post–Gulf War Air Force space operators, SenatorBob Smith publicly called for the establishment of a Space Force if the Air Force could not, or would not, embrace spacepower. An independent Department of the Space Force would ensure that space got its fair share of resources within the Defense Department, with Senator Smith calling for the creation of a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force as a bridge to a fully independent Space Force.[28]
In 2000, Senator Smith led Congress in establishing a commission to examine the organization and management of national security space. The Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, better known as the 2001 Space Commission or the Rumsfeld Commission, released its report in 2001. The Rumsfeld Commission noted the strong risk of a "Space Pearl Harbor," harking back to Imperial Japan's surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet in 1941. It was extremely critical of the Air Force's treatment of space, with few witnesses expressing confidence that the Air Force would address the requirement to provide space capabilities to the other services or move beyond treating space as just a support capability for air operations. The most significant recommendation of the Rumsfeld Commission was the creation of a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force in the mid-term, which would evolve into aDepartment of the Space Force in the long-term. The Rumsfeld Commission expected the transition from Air Force Space Command to a fully independent Space Force to occur in between 2006 and 2011.[28][29]
Air Force leadership reacted extremely poorly to the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations. The day after the commission was publicly releasedAir Force chief of staff GeneralMichael E. Ryan declared "an independent Space Force or Corps was not warranted for at least another 50 years." General Ryan doubled down over the following year, stating that a Space Force should only be considered once space operations moved beyond Earth orbit. Despite the Air Force's hostility to the idea of a Space Corps or Space Force, they did meet some recommendations by transferring theSpace and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command and establishing theNational Security Space Institute.[28] Ultimately, the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations remained unfulfilled because of the higher priority placed oncounterterrorism after theSeptember 11 attacks, canceling plans for a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force or a fully independent Space Force by 2011.[30]
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While the United States' focus shifted from space to counterterrorism, theRussian Armed Forces and ChinesePeople's Liberation Army realized the military benefits that could be gleaned from space, as well as the incredible reliance the United States put on its space forces. Throughout the 2000s, Russian and Chinese space and counterspace capabilities began to increase.[10] In 2001, theRussian Space Forces were reestablished as an independent arm and in 2007, China conducted a destructiveanti-satellite missile test causing the single largest space debris generating event in history.[31][32][33] In the aftermath of the Chinese ASAT test, Congress tasked the Allard Commission to reevaluate the Defense Department's space organization and management. The Allard Commission noted that the United States' dependence on space had increased, but comparatively little...[had] been achieved to make them more secure." It also noted, despite the recommendations of the Rumsfeld Commission, authority and responsibility for national security space remained fragmented and unfocused. Like the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, the 2008 Allard Commission recommended establishing a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force or a separate Department of the Space Force to unify national security space.[28]
It took until 2017 for members of Congress to act on the recommendations of the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force. RepresentativesMike Rogers andJim Cooper unveiled a bipartisan proposal to establish a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force, however it experienced significant opposition from the Air Force and Defense Department, failing in the Senate.[34][35] However, the proposal was resurrected in 2018 when PresidentDonald Trump publicly endorsed the creation of a Space Force and directed the Defense Department to reverse its opposition and develop plans for its establishment.[36][37] TheTrump Administration plan for the U.S. Space Force was outlined in Space Policy Directive-4, initially organizing the U.S. Space Force as part of the Department of the Air Force, but with plans to build out a separate Department of the Space Force in the future.[38] In 2019, Congress passed legislation establishing the U.S. Space Force as a military service under the Department of the Air Force. On 20 December 2019, theNational Defense Authorization Act was signed into law and the U.S. Space Force was established as the sixth armed service, meeting the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions' recommendations to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force, but still falling short of creating a separate Department of the Space Force.[28]
We are at the dawn of a new era for our Nation’s Armed Forces. The establishment of the U.S. Space Force is an historic event and a strategic imperative for our Nation. Space has become so important to our way of life, our economy and our national security that we must be prepared as a Nation to protect it from hostile actions.
— Secretary of DefenseMark Esper, 20 December 2019[39]
As the U.S. Space Force was established on 20 December 2019, GeneralJay Raymond, commander ofU.S. Space Command andAir Force Space Command, became its first member andchief of space operations. Air Force Space Command was immediately redesignated as United States Space Force, however, the command and its 16,000 Airmen technically remained part of the Air Force.[40] On 3 April 2020, Chief Master SergeantRoger A. Towberman became the Space Force's second member and was appointed its firstsenior enlisted leader.[41] The service gained its first new second lieutenants when 86 members of theU.S. Air Force Academy class of 2020 became Space Force members 3 through 88 on 18 April 2020.[42] Currently serving Air Force space operators began to become Space Force members in September 2020 and the service gained its first astronaut when ColonelMichael S. Hopkins swore into the Space Force aboard theInternational Space Station on 18 December 2020.[43][44][45][46]
The Space Force also began to build out its culture and identity, however, it experienced several public relations challenges due to its perceived ties toscience fiction and links to President Trump.[47] The Space Force adopted the Army and Air Force'sOCP Uniform with blue stitching and a full colorU.S. flag, sparking jokes about fighting on theforest moon of Endor fromStar Wars: Return of the Jedi, while its distinctive service dress drew comparisons to Colonial Fleet uniforms fromBattlestar Galactica orStarfleet uniforms fromStar Trek. While the Space Force noted that its camouflage combat uniform was appropriate since space operators deploy to combat zones on the Earth alongside the rest of the joint force and it saved money, it did not have a similar response for its service dress uniform, which were described as a "futuristic-looking" design by General Raymond.[48][49][50][51] The Space Force'sseal anddelta insignia were also incorrectly derided as a rip-off ofStar Trek's Starfleet logo, despite being first adopted as a space symbol by theAir Force Ballistic Missile Division in 1962, four years beforeStar Trek first aired on television in 1966.[52]Star Trek graphic designerMichael Okuda recalled that Starfleet's logo was chosen as an homage to Air Force Space Command, the Space Force's direct predecessor.[52]
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The service also chose the title "Guardian" to represent its personnel, becoming its counterpart to Soldier and Airman. The term "Guardian" has a long history within Air Force Space Command, originally serving as part of its motto: "Guardians of the High Frontier."[53] The Space Force also adoptedSemper Supra as its official motto and unveiled itsservice song, sharing the same name.[54] The decision on if the Space Force's ranks would mirror the Army, like the Air Force and Marine Corps, or the Navy, generated significant controversy, with Congressman Dan Crenshaw introducing an amendment which would force the Space Force to pattern itself after the Navy's rank structure.[55] Ultimately, the amendment failed and the Space Force followed an Air Force/Army/Marine Corps-based rank scheme.[10]
The Space Force began to officially incorporate former Air Force Space Command units in 2020 and 2021, standing up field commands to serve as counterparts to the Air Force's major commands. It also consolidated Air Force wings and groups into mission deltas, a formation roughly equivalent to an ArmyBrigade Combat Team or Air Force expeditionary wing, and space base deltas (briefly known as garrisons), equivalent to an Army garrison or Air Force air base wing.[56][57] It also began to rename former Air Force bases and station to Space Force bases and station, starting withPatrick Space Force Base andCape Canaveral Space Force Station.[58] It also established component field commands to serve as Space Force components at theunified combatant commands, assuming space component responsibility from the U.S. Air Force.[59]
One of the primary reasons the Space Force was created was to consolidate space forces from across the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, and U.S. Navy.[38] In 2020, theSpace Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional) was established to form the foundation forSpace Training and Readiness Command and incorporate Air Force space units spread acrossAir Combat Command andAir Education and Training Command, whileSpace Systems Command incorporated space acquisitions activities acrossAir Force Materiel Command, although, notably it did not incorporate space research and development conducted by theAir Force Research Laboratory.[60][61] The Space Force also began incorporating space personnel transfers from the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps.[62] In 2022, it theNaval Satellite Operations Center and Army'sSatellite Operations Brigade transferred to the Space Force, putting satellite communications under a single service for the first time in history.[63][64] In 2023, it assumed responsibility for the Army'sJoint Tactical Ground Station, putting all space-based missile warning under the Space Force.[65]
The Space Force's first significant combat action occurred less than a month after its establishment, providing missile warning when Iran launched missilestrikes against U.S. troops atAl Asad Airbase on 7 January 2020.[66] In 2021, the Russian Federation conducted ananti-satellite weapons test, destroying theKosmos 1408 and putting theInternational Space Station at risk.[67]
The Space Force is organized into a headquarters staff that provides leadership and guidance for the force; field commands that are responsible for organizing, training, and equipping Guardians; deltas that support field commands and are specialized by mission area; and squadrons which specialize in acquisitions, cyberspace operations, engineering, intelligence, and space operations.[10]
The Space Force has the following structure of military units:[68]
At the headquarters level, the Space Force is led by thechief of space operations, a four-star general who reports to thesecretary of the Air Force and provides military advice to civilian leadership of theDepartment of Defense and theWhite House. TheAir Force and Space Force combine to form the Department of the Air Force, similar to theNavy andMarine Corps combining to form theDepartment of the Navy.[10]
The Space Force's three field commands (FLDCOM) are purpose-built for specific activities, aligning to the various institutional responsibilities to organize, train, and equip Guardians. Component field commands (C-FLDCOM) coordinate and integrate space forces into planning and current operations withinunified combatant commands. Direct reporting units (DRU) are hubs of innovation and intelligence expertise within the Space Force, providing new ideas or deep knowledge about highly specialized issues.[10]
| Field command | Mission | Headquarters | |
|---|---|---|---|
 | Space Operations Command (SpOC) | Generates, presents, and sustains space warfighting capability for combatant commanders | Peterson SFB,Colorado |
 | Space Systems Command (SSC) | Develops, acquires, equips, fields, and sustains lethal and resilient space capabilities | Los Angeles AFB,California |
 | Space Training and Readiness Command (STARCOM) | Increases Guardians' readiness to prevail in competition and conflict through education, training, doctrine, and test | Peterson SFB,Colorado |
| Component field command | Mission | Headquarters | |
 | U.S. Space Forces – Space (SPACEFOR–SPACE) | The U.S. Space Force component toU.S. Space Command which plans, executes, and integrates military spacepower into multi-domain global operations for all U.S. military operations beginning at theKármán line, 62 miles/100 kilometers above mean sea level | Vandenberg SFB,California |
 | U.S. Space Forces – Central (SPACEFOR–CENT) | The U.S. Space Force component toU.S. Central Command which plans, executes, and integrates military power across an area of responsibility that spans Northeast Africa, the Middle East, and Central and South Asia | MacDill AFB,Florida |
 | U.S. Space Forces – Europe and Africa (SPACEFOR–EURAF) | The U.S. Space Force component toU.S. European Command andU.S. Africa Command which plans, executes, and integrates military spacepower across an area of responsibility that spans Europe, large portions of Asia, the Middle East, Arctic Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean and Africa | Ramstein AB,Germany |
 | U.S. Space Forces – Indo-Pacific (SPAFOR-INDOPAC) | The U.S. Space Force component toU.S. Indo-Pacific Command which plans, executes, and integrates military spacepower across an area of responsibility that spans the Asia-Pacific region | JB Pearl Harbor-Hickam,Hawaii |
| Space Force Element | Mission | Headquarters | |
 | Space Force Element National Reconnaissance Office (SFELM NRO) | Supports the design, development, launch, and maintenance of America's intelligence satellites | Chantilly, Virginia |
| Direct Reporting Unit | Mission | Headquarters | |
 | Space Development Agency (SDA) | Develops, demonstrates, and transitions resilient military space-based sensing, tracking, and data transport capabilities into a proliferated multi-orbit architecture, encompassing government, commercial, and rapid acquisition architectures | The Pentagon,Arlington County, Virginia |
 | Space Rapid Capabilities Office (SpRCO) | Specializes in the expedited development and rapid production and deployment of space capabilities to fulfill short-term critical needs | Kirtland AFB,New Mexico |
| Field Operating Agency | Mission | Headquarters | |
 | National Space Intelligence Center (NSIC) | Delivers unparalleled technical expertise and game-changing intelligence – empowering national leaders, joint force warfighter and acquisition professionals to outwit, out-reach and win in the space domain[69] | Wright-Patterson AFB,Ohio |
While the Space Force's headquarters is in Washington, D.C., the rest of the service is spread across the United States and abroad, across 18 states and territories and 46 bases and installations as of 2024.[10]
As the United States Space Force matures, and as national security requires, it will become necessary to create a separate military department, to be known as the Department of the Space Force.
— Space Policy Directive-4, 2019[38]
The Space Force is currently organized as a service under theDepartment of the Air Force, more closely mirroring the concept of a Space Corps rather than a fully independent Space Force. SenatorBob Smith, the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, and 2008 Allard Commission each envisioned that a Space Corps would first be created under the Department of the Air Force as an interim measure as it grew into a fully independent Space Force.[28] In 2019, Space Policy Directive-4 directed the Space Force be initially established under the Department of the Air Force as the first step towards an independent Department of the Space Force, which would take over the entire space mission from the Department of the Air Force. It also directed thesecretary of defense to conduct a periodic review to determine when to recommend thepresident seek legislation to establish the Department of the Space Force.[38]
Following the Space Force's establishment there have been a number of calls to rename the Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Air and Space Forces to reflect its composition of theU.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force.[70][71] Congress previously explored renaming the Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Aerospace Force in 1981 and congressional efforts were made in the 2000s to rename theDepartment of the Navy to the Department of the Navy and Marine Corps, however both of these proposals failed under opposition from the Defense Department.[72]
Space Force advocates have also called for the creation of anundersecretary of the Air Force for space. This provision was included in the Trump administration's original legislative proposal to give the Space Force additional independence and autonomy but was removed by the Senate.[73][74][75] There have also been numerous calls from inside and outside the Space Force for it to have its own public affairs and judge advocates general, independent from Air Force.[76][77][78][79]
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When the Space Force was established in 2019 it was intended to consolidate the existing military space forces across the Army, Navy, and Air Force.[80] While the Navy and Air Force gave up all of their space forces, the greatest resistance to transferring space forces came from the Army.[81]
While the Army transferred its satellite communications and missile warning assets, there are still calls for it to transfer1st Space Brigade and100th Missile Defense Brigade to the Space Force.[82][83]The Heritage Foundation called for the wholesale transfer ofUnited States Army Space and Missile Defense Command, including the100th Missile Defense Brigade and the1st Space Brigade.[81] The100th Missile Defense Brigade operates theGround Based Interceptor system and is located atSchriever Space Force Base,Vandenberg Space Force Base, andFort Greely.[84] Former Air Force space officers have called to move the missile defense and intercontinental ballistic missile mission to the Space Force and theCenter for Strategic and International Studies has also proposed moving missile defense into the Space Force.[85][86] The Army also continues to maintain a cadre of Functional Area 40 space operations officers, although over 85% indicated they would transfer to the Space Force if able.[87] The Army is also maintaining the1st Space Brigade, however theRAND Corporation has conducted a study calling for its transfer to the Space Force.[88][89]
The U.S. Space Force and its antecedents have a long history of cooperation withNASA, as the lead government agencies for military and civil spaceflight. The Space Force's predecessors in the Air Force, Navy, and Army provided NASA with its early space launch vehicles and most of its astronauts.[90]
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The Space Force hosts NASA launch operations atVandenberg Space Force Base andCape Canaveral Space Force Station.[91][92] NASA occasionally hosts U.S. Space Force heavy launches out ofKennedy Space Center.[93] The Space Force continues to support NASA's human spaceflight missions with range support ofSpace Launch Delta 45 and tracks threats to theInternational Space Station and other crewed spacecraft.[94][95]
The Space Force and NASA partner on matters such asspace domain awareness andplanetary defense.[96] Space Force members can be NASA astronauts, with ColonelMichael S. Hopkins, the commander ofSpaceX Crew-1, commissioned into the Space Force from theInternational Space Station on 18 December 2020.[44][45][46]
TheNational Reconnaissance Office (NRO) is a Department of Defense agency and a member of theUnited States Intelligence Community, responsible for designing, building, launching, and maintaining intelligence satellites.[97] The Space Force executes National Reconnaissance Office space launches and consists of 40% of the agency's personnel.[98][99][100] Proposals have been put forward, including by theAir Force Association and retired Air Force Lieutenant GeneralDavid Deptula, to merge the NRO into the Space Force, transforming it into a Space Force Intelligence, Reconnaissance, and Surveillance Command and consolidating the entire national security space apparatus in the Space Force.[101][102][103]
The USSF'sSpace Systems Command (SSC), in partnership with theNational Reconnaissance Office, manages theNational Security Space Launch (NSSL) program, which uses government andcontract spacecraft to launch sensitivegovernmentpayloads.[104][105] NSSL supports both the USSF and NRO.[105] NRO director Scolese has characterized his agency as critical to American space dominance and the Space Force, stating that NRO provides "unrivaled situational awareness and intelligence to the bestimagery andsignals data on the planet."[104] Additionally, in August 2021, former NRO deputy director Lt GenMichael Guetlein became commander of Space Systems Command.[106]
The Space Force and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) jointly operate the military's weather satellites.[107] Additionally, NOAA'sOffice of Space Commerce is responsible for civilianspace situational awareness andspace traffic management.[108]
The decision to transition space traffic management from the military to the Department of Commerce was made due to the significant growth in commercial spacecraft and to mirror how theFederal Aviation Administration, rather than the U.S. Air Force, handles air traffic management.[109]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scientists derived therocket equation, which made spaceflight possible. In this equation, represents the change in velocity. Since the 20th century, the delta has been used to represent a stylized aircraft, missile, or arrow. In 1940, theUnited States Army Air Forces36th Fighter Group used the delta on its shield, which is still used by the U.S. Air Force36th Fighter Wing.[110]
After World War II, the delta began to be used by the space program, appearing on the jointU.S. Air Force-NASAX-15. In 1962, theAir Force Ballistic Missile Division became the first of a long line of international military space organizations to use the delta, which, in the Air Force Space Command shield represented the Air Force's upward thrust into space and the launch vehicles used to place satellites into orbit. This delta later evolved into the U.S. Space Force's seal and its logo in 2020, becoming the basic shape for field command and delta emblems.[110]
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Space Force service members have the title of Guardians, similar to how members of the U.S. Marine Corps are called Marines and members of the Air Force are called Airmen. The title of guardian traces its heritage to Air Force Space Command's 1983 mottoGuardians of the High Frontier.[111] Prior to the announcement of Guardian as the service title on 18 December 2020, members of the Space Force were referred to as space professionals.[112]
The Space Force's motto,Semper Supra – "Always Above".[113] It mirrors the mottos of the Marine Corps (Semper Fidelis – Always Faithful) and Coast Guard (Semper Paratus – Always Ready).[114][115] The Space Force'sservice song takes its name from the motto.[116]
 Space Operations |  Intelligence |  Cyberspace Operations |  Acquisition and engineering |
|---|---|---|---|
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Space operators are the largest career field in the Space Force and comprise much of its senior leadership.[117] Space operations officers are responsible for leading the Space Force's space operations forces. Space operations officers (13S) are responsible for planning and leading space combat operations across orbital warfare, space electromagnetic warfare, space battle management, and space access and sustainment spacepower disciplines. They also formulate space operations policy, coordinate space operations, and plan, organize, and direct space operations programs.[118][119] Enlisted Space Systems Operators (5S) are responsible for conducting orbital warfare, space electromagnetic warfare, space battle management, and space access and sustainment operations.[120][121] Space operations officers and enlisted space systems operators are awarded theSpace Operations Badge after completing the533rd Training Squadron's Undergraduate Space Training program atVandenberg Space Force Base, with follow-on education provided by the319th Combat Training Squadron andNational Security Space Institute.[122]
The Space Force currently has twoastronauts (13A) who flew as Space Force officers on assignment toNASA. Space Force astronauts command, operate, and pilotcrewed spacecraft, accomplish on-orbit duties on theInternational Space Station or other spacecraft, operate Department of Defense payloads, and provide spaceflight consultation to the Department of Defense and other government agencies. Space Force astronauts must completeNASA Astronaut Candidate (ASCAN) training atJohnson Space Center. Once completing a spaceflight, Space Force astronauts are awarded the observer badge with astronaut rating.[119]
Intelligence officers (14N) lead the Space Force'sintelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance enterprise, performing intelligence activities and analysis.[123] They lead enlistedAll Source Intelligence Analysts (5I0),Geospatial Intelligence Analysts (5I1),Signals Intelligence Analysts (5I2), and Fusion Analysts (5I4), andTargeting Analysts (5I8).[124][125][126][127][128][121] Intelligence officers and enlisted analysts are awarded their intelligence badge after completing intelligence training with the533rd Training Squadron Detachment 1 atGoodfellow Air Force Base, with follow-on education provided by the319th Combat Training Squadron andNational Security Space Institute.[129]
Cyberspace effects operations officers (17S) are responsible for operating cyberspace weapons systems, satellite communications systems, and commanding cyber crews.[119] They lead enlisted Cyberspace Operations guardians.[130] Cyberspace effects operations officers and enlisted cyberspace operators are awarded the cyberspace operator badge after completing Undergraduate Cyber Training with the Air Force's81st Training Wing atKeesler Air Force Base, with follow-on education provided by the319th Combat Training Squadron andNational Security Space Institute.[131]
Acquisition and engineering are officer only career fields within the Space Force. Specific developmental engineers (62E) includeaeronautical engineers (62EXA),astronautical engineers (62EXB),computer systems engineers (62EXC),electrical/electronic engineer (62EXE),mechanical engineer (62EXH) and thehuman factors engineer/human systems integration (62EXI). Space Force engineers graduate from theDefense Acquisition University and theU.S. Air Force Flight Test Engineer course, or a comparable program.[132][133][134][135][136][137] Acquisition managers (63A) are responsible for the Space Force's acquisition process.[138]
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The U.S. Space Force has seven core spacepower disciplines in which its personnel gain experience:[139]
Officers are the leaders of the U.S. Space Force and are responsible for planning operations and managing personnel. Space Force officers enter the service through three different paths: graduating from theUnited States Air Force Academy,Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps, orAir Force Officer Training School.[140]
The premier commissioning route for Space Force officers is through the U.S. Air Force Academy, apublic university andmilitary academy. Approximately ~10% of each class commissions as U.S. Space Force officers, with the remainder entering into the U.S. Air Force.[141]Space Delta 13, Detachment 1 is responsible for providing Space Force training, immersion, and mentorship to cadets. The Air Force Academy has a long history with Air Force space, establishing the world's first Department of Astronautics in 1958 and the Cadet Space Operations Squadron, which operates theFalconSAT satellites, in 1997.[142][143][144][145] Additional space programs, such as the Azimuth program, i5 Squadron and Blue Horizon rocketry club have stood up and as of 2023, the Air Force Academy offers two space majors, a space warfighting minor, and 29 space courses across all its academic departments.[146] On 18 April 2020, the Air Force Academy commissioned 86 officers into the Space Force, becoming the first group of individuals to enter the service after the first chief of space operations, GeneralJay Raymond, and the senior enlisted advisor of the Space Force, Chief Master SergeantRoger Towberman.[147]
TheAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps program is offered at 1,100 colleges and universities. Like the Air Force Academy, it commissions officers directly into either the Air Force or Space Force.[148] TheAir Force Officer Training School is the final path to commission into the Space Force, graduating its first two Space Force officers on 16 October 2020 and its first all-Space Force flight graduating on 17 March 2023.[149][150]
The Space Force partners withJohns Hopkins University'sPaul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies to provide Intermediate Developmental Education and Senior Developmental Education.[151] Additional educational opportunities for officers include the319th Combat Training Squadron,National Security Space Institute,Air Force Institute of Technology,U.S. Air Force Weapons School, theAcquisition Instructor Course,U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School, theSpace Test Course, andAir University's School of Advanced Air and Space Studies.[152][153][154][155][156]
| US DoD pay grade | O-10 | O-9 | O-8 | O-7 | O-6 | O-5 | O-4 | O-3 | O-2 | O-1 | Officer candidate |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NATO code | OF-9 | OF-8 | OF-7 | OF-6 | OF-5 | OF-4 | OF-3 | OF-2 | OF-1 | OF(D) | |
| Insignia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | Various insignia |
| Service dress uniform(Class A) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| Service uniform(Class B) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | |
| Mess dress uniform |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | |
| OCP uniform |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | |
| Title | General | Lieutenant general | Major general | Brigadier general | Colonel | Lieutenant colonel | Major | Captain | First lieutenant | Second lieutenant | Cadet /Officer trainee |
| Abbreviation | Gen | Lt Gen | Maj Gen | Brig Gen | Col | Lt Col | Maj | Capt | 1st Lt | 2d Lt | Cdt / OT |
Enlisted members participate in and support operations. Space Force enlisted members completeBasic Military Training atJoint Base San Antonio. Space Force Basic Military Training is identical to Air Force Basic Military Training, with the addition of Space Force-specific curriculum.[157] On 20 October 2020, the first four individuals enlisted into the Space Force and on 10 December 2020, the first seven enlisted members to enter the Space Force graduated from Basic Military Training.[158][159] In May 2022, the Space Force started running its own all-Guardian Basic Military Training to reinforce Space Force culture.[160]
Space Force enlisted members are enrolled in theCommunity College of the Air Force, earning an associate in applied science degree.[161] Professional military education is conducted at Space Training and Readiness Command'sForrest L. Vosler Non-Commissioned Officer Academy.[162] Other educational opportunities for enlisted members include the319th Combat Training Squadron,National Security Space Institute,Advanced Instructor Course and theSpace Test Course.[163][156]
The Space Force's enlisted rank design is centered on a hexagon, representing the Space Force's status as the sixth military service in the Armed Forces. The horizontal stripes for Specialist 2, 3, and 4 were inspired by an early proposal forAir Force enlisted ranks known as "Vandenberg stripes". The delta represents the Space Force. The specialist stripes representterra firma, the solid foundation of skills upon which the Space Force is built. Noncommissioned officer insignia feature traditional chevrons and the "Delta, Globe, and Orbit," representing the totality of the Space Force. Finally, senior noncommissioned officer insignia are topped with "orbital chevrons", representinglow Earth orbit for master sergeants,medium Earth orbit for senior master sergeants, andgeosynchronous orbit for chief master sergeants. These orbital chevrons signify the higher levels of responsibility and willingness to explore and innovate placed upon senior noncommissioned officers. Finally, theChief master Sergeant of the Space Force is represented by a "Delta, Globe, and Orbit" in a hexagonal wreath.[164]
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| US DoD pay grade | Special | E-9 | E-8 | E-7 | E-6 | E-5 | E-4 | E-3 | E-2 | E-1 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NATO code | OR-9 | OR-8 | OR-7 | OR-6 | OR-5 | OR-4 | OR-3 | OR-2 | OR-1 | ||
| Insignia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| Title | Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman | Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force | Chief master sergeant | Senior master sergeant | Master sergeant | Technical sergeant | Sergeant | Specialist 4 | Specialist 3 | Specialist 2 | Specialist 1 |
| Abbreviation | SEAC | CMSSF | CMSgt | SMSgt | MSgt | TSgt | Sgt | Spc4 | Spc3 | Spc2 | Spc1 |
| Air Force Mess Dress Uniform (interim) | Service Dress Uniform Class "A" | Service Uniform Class "B" | Air Force Service Dress Uniform (interim) | OCP Uniform | Physical Training Uniform | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) |  | .jpg) |  |  |  |  |
The Space Force is currently in the process of developing its uniquemess dress,service dress, andphysical training uniforms.[165] In the interim period, guardians wear the Air Force Mess Dress, Air Force Service Dress, and Air Force Service uniforms with the following modifications:[166]
The primary Space Force uniform is theOCP Uniform, adopted from the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Army. The Space Force uses unique "space blue" thread for ranks and badges, wears a full color flag on the left sleeve, and wears full color patches.[167]
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The Space Force's distinctive blue and gray service dress uniform was unveiled at theAir & Space Forces Association's 2021 Air, Space, and Cyber conference. The dark blue was taken from the Space Force's seal and represents the vastness of outer space, while the six buttons represent that the U.S. Space Force is the sixth armed service.[168] The Space Force's Physical Training Uniform was unveiled in September 2021. As of April 2023, the Space Force stated that the Physical Training Uniform would be available by early 2024 and that the Service Dress Uniform would be available by late 2025.[169]
Space Force cadets at the Air Force Academy wear the same uniform as Air Force cadets; however, in their distinctive blue and white parade dress uniforms they wear a platinum sash in place of the gold sash worn by Air Force cadets.[170]
As part of theUnited States Department of the Air Force, the United States Space Force andUnited States Air Force share the same awards and decorations or same variations of awards and decorations.[171]
On 16 November 2020, the Secretary of the Air ForceFrank Kendall III renamed the Air Force Commendation Medal, the Air Force Achievement Medal, Air Force Outstanding Unit Award, Air Force Organizational Excellence Award, Air Force Recognition Ribbon, Air Force Overseas Ribbons, Air Force Expeditionary Service Ribbon, Air Force Longevity Service Award, and the Air Force Training Ribbon to replace "Air Force" with "Air and Space" to include the Space Force. He also eliminated Air Force from the Air Force Combat Action Medal and renamed the Air Force Special Duty Ribbon to the Developmental Special Duty Ribbon.[172]
The Space Force is currently in the process of developing a Space Force Good Conduct Medal to replace the Air Force Good Conduct Medal for enlisted members which was approved on 30 August 2023.[173][174] Congress has also debated changing the Airman's Medal, awarded for non-combat heroism, to the Air and Space Force Medal, mirroring theNavy and Marine Corps Medal.[175]
| Arctic "A" Device | Arrowhead Device | Combat "C" Device | Oak leaf cluster | Remote "R" Device | Service Star | Valor "V" Device | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| Presidential Unit Citation | Gallant Unit Citation | Meritorious Unit Award | Air and Space Outstanding Unit Award | Air and Space Organizational Excellence Award |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  |  |  |  |
| Name | Space launch vehicle image | Class | Contractor |
|---|---|---|---|
| Atlas V |  | Medium-lift launch vehicle | United Launch Alliance |
| Electron | _(cropped).jpg) | Small-lift launch vehicle | Rocket Lab |
| Falcon 9 | .jpg) | Medium toHeavy-lift launch vehicle | SpaceX |
| Falcon Heavy | .jpg) | Heavy toSuper heavy-lift launch vehicle | SpaceX |
| Pegasus | .jpg) | Air launchedsmall-lift launch vehicle | Northrop Grumman |
| United States Space Force Budget | 2020[192] | 2021[193] | 2022[194] | 2023 (Enacted)[195] | 2024 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Operation & Maintenance | $40,000,000 | $2,492,114,000 | $3,611,012,000 | $4,086,883,000 | TBA |
| Procurement | — | $2,310,994,000 | $2,787,354,000 | $4,462,188,000 | $3,752,194,000 |
| Research, Development, Test & Evaluation | — | $10,540,069,000 | $11,794,566,000 | $16,631,377,000 | $19,551,449,000 |
| Military Personnel | — | — | — | $1,109,400,000 | TBA |
| Total | $40,000,000 | $15,343,177,000 | $18,192,932,000 | $26,289,848,000 | TBA |
While a new service, the U.S. Space Force is undergoing intensive modernization efforts. TheDeep Space Advanced Radar Capability (DARC) is intended to track objects ingeosynchronous orbit with three sites, one in the United States, one in the Indo-Pacific, and one in Europe.[196]
Oracle, a spacecraft developed by theAir Force Research Laboratory for the Space Force, will demonstrate technologies that the space service needs for cislunar domain awareness – tracking objects outside of geosynchronous orbit and between Earth and the Moon. The spacecraft itself will launch to an area of gravitational stability between the Earth and the Moon to conduct operations, using a wide-field sensor and a more sensitive narrow field sensor to discover and maintain custody of objects operating in this region. Oracle will directly supportNASA'sArtemis program as it returns to the Moon and track potentially hazardous near-Earth objects in support ofplanetary defense operations.[197]
Also an Air Force Research Laboratory program for the Space Force, Arachne is the keystone experiment in theSpace Solar Power Incremental Demonstrations and Research Project, which aims to prove and mature essential technologies for a prototypespace-based solar power transmission system capable of powering aforward operating base. Arachne will specifically demonstrate and mature technologies related to more efficient energy generation, radio frequency forming, and radio frequency beam beaming. Current forward operation bases rely on significant logistics convoys to transport fuel for power – space-based solar power would move these supply lines to space, where they are unable to be easily attacked. Much like how GPS started as a military program and was opened to civilian use, Space Force-provided space-based solar power could transition to common use as well.[198] Other space-based power beaming demonstrators include the Space Power InfraRed Regulation and Analysis of Lifetime (SPIRRAL) and Space Power INcremental DepLoyable Experiment (SPINDLE) experiments.[199]
The Navigation Technology Satellite-3 (NTS-3), building on the Space Force'sGlobal Positioning System constellation, is an Air Force Research Laboratory spacecraft that will operate in geosynchronous orbit to test advanced techniques and technologies to detect and mitigate interference to positioning, navigation, and timing capabilities and increase system resiliency for military, civil, and commercial users. NTS-3 is a Vanguard program, which mark potentially game changing technologies.[200]
The Space Force'sRocket Cargo program is another Air Force Research Laboratory Vanguard program, which is focused on leasing space launch services to quickly transport military materiel to ports across the globe. If proven viable, the Space Force'sSpace Systems Command is responsible for transitioning it to a program of record.United States Transportation Command would be the primary user of this capability, rapidly launching up to 100 tons of cargo anywhere in the world.[201]
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