 | |
 European Union |  United Kingdom |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| European Union Delegation, London | United Kingdom Mission, Brussels |
| Envoy | |
| AmbassadorPedro Serrano | AmbassadorLindsay Croisdale-Appleby |
TheUnited Kingdom is not amember state of theEuropean Union. Relations between theEuropean Union (EU) and theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) are governed, since 1 January 2021, by theEU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA).
Relations trace back to the foundation of theEuropean Communities, the European Union's predecessor, in 1957. The UK was a member state of the bloc after joining it in 1973 (which was confirmed in areferendum on membership in 1975) until it became the first country to voluntarily end its membership on 31 January 2020 after asecond referendum on membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of voters opting to leave.
TheBrexit withdrawal agreement now plays a significant role in relations between the two polities. The United Kingdom shares a land border with theRepublic of Ireland, an EU member state,viaNorthern Ireland, which has remained ade facto member of theEuropean Single Market and maintained the authority of theEuropean Court of Justice under theNorthern Ireland Protocol. Relations between the UK and the EU have seen improvement since the proposal of theWindsor Framework.
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The UK failed to take part in the diplomatic discussions that led up to the creation of theEuropean Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), likewise later withdrawing from negotiations for the constitution of theEuropean Economic Community (EEC).[1]
The United Kingdom's failed applications to join theEuropean Communities (EC) in 1963 and 1967 were vetoed by the president of France,Charles de Gaulle, who said that "a number of aspects ofBritain's economy, from working practices toagriculture" had "made Britain incompatible with Europe" and that Britain harboured a "deep-seated hostility" to any pan-European project.[2] Once de Gaulle had relinquished theFrench presidency in 1969, the UK made a third and successful application for membership.
Following the UK accession to the EC in 1973, the former got to renegotiate membership terms, vied for budgetary rebates and requested opt-outs from the single currency and other common policies.[3] The protectionistCommon Agricultural Policy (CAP) in particular was often at the center of the UK conflicts with the rest of the EC, underpinning its reputation as an "awkward partner" within the bloc.[4]
Since 1977, both pro- and anti-European views have had majority support at different times, with some dramatic swings between the two camps.[5] Conservative and Labour parties alike usually pandered to the prejudices towards the EC espoused by the Britons, who rather than commit to a European idea, generally preferred to hanker for the bygone days of British world hegemony.[6] In theUnited Kingdom European Communities membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. The highest-ever rejection of membership was in 1980, the first full year of Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher's term of office, with 65% opposed to and 26% in favour of membership.[5] As a member of the EU, the United Kingdom never adopted the use of theeuro or joined theSchengen Area, which, bringing down border controls in a number of countries, thereby allowed for free movement of citizens.[7] Likewise, the UK government adhered to a long-standing policy of enthusiasm forEU enlargement, under the premise that the addition of more members would undermine any federalising drive (deepening) of the union.[8][3]
Vis-à-visGibraltar, aBritish Overseas Territory whose defence and foreign policies are handled by His Majesty's Government, theSpain's accession to the European Communities in 1986, negotiated with the UK inside the bloc from a position of strength, made the former country to renounce its power, recognised by theTreaty of Utrecht, to closeits land border with Gibraltar at its discretion.[9] The then Conservative UK government acquiesced to the 1992Maastricht Treaty (by which the European Union came into existence) as it aligned with its vision of the bloc as essentially a free market.[10]
The 1998Good Friday Agreement pertaining the end of theethnonationalist conflict in Northern Ireland was signed under the context of the shared membership of the UK and Ireland in the EU.[11]
Following the result of the2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, when 52 percent of those who voted supported 'Brexit' (a blend of "British exit"), the UKnegotiated its withdrawal from the European Union. After the vote, British Prime MinisterDavid Cameron, who supported staying in the EU, resigned.Theresa May became the prime minister after his formal resignation. Although she also supported remaining in the EU, she committed to negotiating Britain's exit.[12] The United Kingdom formally left the bloc on 31 January 2020.
On 30 December 2020, after eight months of negotiations, the EU and the UK signed theEU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement,[13] which governs bilateral relations since its provisional entry into force two days later and which was later ratified by both parties. UK government attempts to unilaterally reject the terms of the agreedNorthern Ireland Protocol have exacerbated post-Brexit relations.[14]
Although the United Kingdom has maintained strong relations with some EU member states, the decision to withdraw and subsequent turbulent process of negotiating theTrade and Cooperation Agreement sparked criticism of the United Kingdom across the EU.[15] However, UK-EU collaborative discussions on the response to the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, which saw the UK invited to an EU Foreign Affairs Council meeting for the first time since Brexit, and the successful negotiation of theWindsor Framework for Northern Ireland between the UK and EU, has indicated a gradual improvement of relations over time.[16][17]
On 28 June 2023, theEU andUK signed a memorandum of understanding to enhance cooperation on financial services. ChancellorJeremy Hunt described the signing as a significant moment, highlighting the interconnections of theEU andUK financial markets. The agreement establishes a forum for regular discussions on voluntary regulatory cooperation. However, it does not indicate regulatory alignment or address specific demands from theEU.[18]
Of the 1,218,000 immigrants whocame to the United Kingdom in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.[19] BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".[19] EU citizens working in the health and social care sector have been replaced by migrants from non-EU countries such asIndia andNigeria.[20][21] After Brexit, the number of EU nationals who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.[22]
On 2 October 2024, the UK and the EU agreed to strengthen their relationship following the disruptions caused by Brexit. During talks in Brussels,Keir Starmer andUrsula von der Leyen emphasized their commitment to enhancing cooperation on issues such as economic growth, energy, security, and migration. They reaffirmed their dedication to the Withdrawal Agreement and international law, despite pressure from hard-line Brexiteers regarding the European Convention on Human Rights. They planned to define areas for strengthened cooperation in the coming months and committed to regular meetings, starting with a summit early in 2025.[23] The first formal summit since Brexit took place in May 2025 in London and concluded fresh agreements on defense cooperation and easing trade flows.[24]
In March 2025, theTrades Union Congress called for a closer relationship with the EU, in order to reduce trade barriers and border checks and bring closer alignment of chemical and food standards. General secretaryPaul Nowak called for a "commonsense trade deal" and a new approach which respects the referendum result.[25][26][27] In May, the TUC welcomed the government's trade reset as "an important first step" and "just the beginning" of improved links.[28][29]
Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU, polling companies have continued to poll respondents on re-joining the EU.
Respondents are regularly polled on their voting intention in a hypothetical referendum on re-joining the EU. This is instead of re-using the leave or remain question from the 2016 referendum.
Recent polling results have demonstrated a clear lead for "re-join" over "stay[ing] out". A longer example of the following table can be foundhere.
| Dates conducted | Pollster | Client | Sample size | Rejoin | Stay out | Neither | Lead |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 26-27 Jan 2023 | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247 | 49% | 29% | 22% | 20% |
| 19-20 Jan 2023 | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247 | 47% | 31% | 22% | 16% |
| 11-12 Jan 2023 | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247 | 44% | 31% | 25% | 13% |
| 5-6 Jan 2023 | Omnisis | N/A | 1,285 | 49% | 30% | 21% | 19% |
In 2021,Euronews commissioned British pollsters Redfield & Wilton Strategies to conduct a poll in France, Germany, Spain, and Italy on how respondents would feel about the UK re-joining the EU. Support out-weighed opposition across all four countries, with it being lowest in France (36%) and highest in Spain (46%).[30]
In 2017, exports to the European Union amounted to £274 billion out of £616 billion in total exports for the UK. The proportion of UK export to theEuropean Union has been noted to be in decline, since exports to non-EU countries have increased at a faster rate.[31]
On the European side, according toEurostat, exports from the EU 27 to the UK have increased from 316 euro billions in 2015 to 319 euro billions in 2019.In the same time, according to Eurostat, imports from the UK to the EU-27 have increased from 184 euro billions in 2015 to 194 euro billions in 2019.[32]
Holding regular EU-UK summits was proposed at the4th European Political Community Summit, atBlenheim Palace in July 2024.
| European Union–United Kingdom Summits | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Date | Country | City | Location | Host Leader | Ref |
| 19 May 2025 |  United Kingdom | London | Lancaster House | Prime MinisterKeir Starmer | [33] |
On 19 May 2025, Prime Minister Keir Starmer,European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, andEuropean Council PresidentAntonio Costa met atLancaster House inCentral London.[34] Starmer announced a new EU–UK deal, including: a defence and security pact, afisheries agreement, anagrifood agreement,carbon border taxes, andborder security.[35]
The EU and the UK agreed to a new Defence and Security pact which will allowUK arms manufacturers to bid for work under the EU’s new £150 billion security action for Europe (Safe) defence fund.[36] Additionally, it pushes for deeper co-operation and information exchanges onspace,cyber security and the tackling theRussian shadow fleet.[35]
The EU and the UK agreed to roll over the existing fishing deal for another 12 years, until 2038, providing access to UK waters for EU fishing fleets.[37]
Both sides agreed to merge theEU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) to theUK CBAM—net-zeroemissions trading schemes.[38] The decision exempts European and British sides from upcoming carbon taxes on each other.[39]
The deal allowsBritish passport holders to entereGates, greatly reducing their border security waiting times.[40] European eGates were previously reserved for people from the EU orEuropean Economic Area, however the UK is no longer a member of either.[41] The agreement has been extended to cover theCrown Dependencies ofGuernsey andJersey; thusGuernsey passports andJersey passports can enter eGates.[42]Pet passports are also covered resulting in UK travellers no longer needing health certificates fromvets in both the UK and EU to travel with their owners to each other's territories.[43]
The agreement enables the UK to rejoin the Erasmus+ student and youth experience scheme, subject to further negotiations.[44]
The agreement will ease border checks on food, helping trade and possibly lowering prices. A special deal will protect British steel exports, saving £25 million a year. Overall, the deal could add nearly £9 billion to the UK economy by 2040.[45]
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