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Theunification of Saudi Arabia was a military and political campaign in which the varioustribes,sheikhdoms,city-states,emirates, andkingdoms of most of the centralArabian Peninsula were conquered by theHouse of Saud, orAl Saud. Unification started in 1902 and continued until 1932, when theKingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed under the leadership of Abdulaziz, known in the West asIbn Saud, creating what is sometimes referred to as theThird Saudi State, to differentiate it from theEmirate of Diriyah, theFirst Saudi State and theEmirate of Nejd, theSecond Saudi State, also House of Saud states.
The Al-Saud had been in exile in the British-protectedEmirate of Kuwait since 1893, aftertheir second episode of removal from power and dissolution of their polity, this time by theAl RashidEmirate of Ha'il. In 1902, Abdulaziz Al Saud recapturedRiyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest ofNejd,al-Hasa,Jabal Shammar,Asir, andHejaz (the location of theMuslim holy cities ofMecca andMedina) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named theKingdom of Hejaz and Nejd from 1927 until it was further consolidated with al-Hasa into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
It has often been claimed that this process caused some 400,000 to 800,000 casualties. However, recent research suggests that though bloody, the number of deaths and injuries was significantly lower.[16]
Following theDiriyah agreement betweenMuhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab andMuhammad ibn Saud in the mid-18th century, theAl Saud clan founded theFirst Saudi State, a polity grounded in a strict interpretation ofIslam. The ideology born of this alliance was later termedWahhabism, a movement advocating the purification of Islamic practices and a return to what its adherents viewed as the original teachings of Islam. Originating in theNejd region of central Arabia, the First Saudi State expanded rapidly, conquering most of theArabian Peninsula and ultimately capturing theMuslim holy city ofMecca in 1802.[17]
The fall of Mecca to the Saudis posed a major challenge to the legitimacy of theOttoman Empire, which had maintained sovereignty over the holy cities since 1517. The Ottomans were eventuallycompelled to respond directly to the growing Saudi power. The responsibility for defeating the Saudis was assigned to the powerful viceroy ofEgypt,Muhammad Ali Pasha, whose ambitions within the Ottoman political sphere aligned with the empire's goal of restoring control over the region. Muhammad Ali dispatched troops to theHejaz, retaking Mecca and reestablishing Ottoman authority. His son,Ibrahim Pasha, simultaneously launched a military campaign deep into Nejd, capturing towns across the region during theNejd Expedition. Reaching the Saudi capital ofDiriyah, Ibrahim placed it under siege for several months before its surrender in late 1818. He ordered the destruction of Diriyah and transported many members of the Al Saud and Al ash-Sheikh (descendants of Ibn Abdul Wahhab) to Egypt and the Ottoman capital,Constantinople. The Saudiemir,Abdullah bin Saud, was later executed in Constantinople.[18]
Although the First Saudi State had been dismantled, the Al Saud survived in exile and eventually re-established their authority with the founding of theSecond Saudi State. This era is generally considered to have begun withTurki ibn Abdallah's capture ofRiyadh in 1824, which he designated as the new capital. The Second Saudi State persisted until theBattle of Mulayda in 1891. Unlike the expansionist First State, the Second State was repeatedly marked by internal divisions, succession disputes, and regional rivalries. These weaknesses allowed the Al Rashid dynasty ofJabal Shammar to grow in influence, ultimately overtaking the Saudis as the dominant power in central Arabia. Following the Saudi defeat at Mulayda, the Saudi leader,Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, fled with his family toOttoman Iraq in 1893.[19]
During exile, internal fractures continued within the Al Saud family, yet the memory of Saudi rule remained strong among many tribal groups in Nejd. These loyalties, combined with growing dissatisfaction with Rashidi rule, later facilitated the rise of Abdul Rahman's son,Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Rahman Al Saud, who would eventually reconquer Riyadh in 1902 and begin the lengthy process of unifying the Arabian Peninsula under what became the modernKingdom of Saudi Arabia. Abdulaziz’s early campaigns relied heavily on tribal alliances, as well as religious and political networks tied to the legacy of the First and Second Saudi States.[20]
By 1932, following decades of military campaigns and strategic alliances, Abdulaziz formally proclaimed the establishment of theKingdom of Saudi Arabia, marking the culmination of more than a century and a half of conflict, survival, reform, and consolidation of power by the Al Saud dynasty. The legacy of the First and Second Saudi States continued to shape the ideological and political foundations of the new kingdom.
In 1901, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud—later to be known asIbn Saud[a]—asked the Emir ofKuwait for men and supplies for an attack on Riyadh. Already involved in several wars with the Rashidis, the Emir agreed to the request, giving Ibn Saud horses and arms. Although the exact number of men waxed and waned during the subsequent journey, he is believed to have left with around 40 men.[b]
In January 1902, Ibn Saud and his men reached Riyadh. With only a small force, he felt that the only way to take the city was to captureMasmak fort and kill Ibn Ajlan, Chief of Riyadh, and having achieved these goals they successfully took the city within the night. With the capture of his family's ancestral home, Ibn Saud proved he possessed the qualities necessary to be asheikh oremir: leadership, courage, and luck.[24][25] This marked the beginning of the third Saudi state. Ibn Saud's dominions became known as theEmirate of Riyadh[26] which lasted until 1921.[27]
The Saudi–Rashidi War, also referred as the "First Saudi–Rashidi War" or the "Battles for Qasim", was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Sultanate of Nejd versus the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the Rashidis. The warfare period of sporadic battles ended with Saudi takeover of theAl-Qassim Region, after decisive victory in Qasim on 13 April 1906,[28] though other engagements followed into 1907.
In 1913, Ibn Saud, with support from theIkhwan,[29]conquered al-Hasa from an Ottoman garrison which had controlled the area from 1871.[30] He then integrated al-Hasa andQatif into the Emirate.[31] The people in these areas wereShia, whereas the Saudis were Sunni Wahhabi puritans, resulting in harsh treatment forShi'a Muslims in Saudi Arabia, as opposed to the relatively tolerant treatment bySunniOttomans.[29]
The Kuwait-Najd War occurred becauseIbn Saud wanted to annexKuwait.[32][33] Ibn Saud insisted that Kuwait's territory belonged to him.[33] The sharpened conflict between Kuwait andNajd led to the death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920.[34]
Following Kuwait–Najd War,Ibn Saud imposed a tight trade blockade against Kuwait for 14 years from 1923 until 1937.[32][35] The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible.[32] At theUqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set.[32] Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference.[32] Ibn Saud persuadedSir Percy Cox to give him two-thirds of Kuwait's territory due to his de facto control of it.[32] More than half of Kuwait was lost due to Uqair.[32] After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudiraiding.[32]
In December, the British government (started early 1915) attempted to cultivate favor with Ibn Saud via its secret agent, CaptainWilliam Shakespear, and this resulted in theTreaty of Darin. After Shakespear's death at theBattle of Jarrab, the British began supporting Ibn Saud's rivalSharif Hussein bin Ali, leader of theHejaz.Lord Kitchener also appealed toHussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca for assistance in the conflict and Hussein wanted political recognition in return.An exchange of letters withHenry McMahon assured him that his assistance would be rewarded betweenEgypt andPersia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Contrary to its negotiations with Ali, the British entered into theTreaty of Darin, which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate. Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans. Ibn Saud was also given a sum of £20,000 upon signing the treaty as well as a monthlystipend of £5000 in exchange for waging war against Ibn Rashid.
The First Saudi-Hashemite War or theAl-Khurma dispute took place in 1918–1919 betweenAbdulaziz Al Saud of the Emirate of Nejd and the Hashemites of theKingdom of Hejaz. The war came within the scope of the historic conflict between the Hashemites of Hejaz and the Saudis of Riyadh (Nejd) over supremacy in Arabia.[36] It resulted in the defeat of the Hashemite forces and capture of al-Khurma by the Saudis and his allied Ikhwan, but British intervention prevented the immediate collapse of the Hashemite kingdom, establishing a sensitive cease-fire, which would last until 1924.
Conquest of Ha'il, also referred as the Third Saudi–Rashidi War, was engaged by theSaudi forces with its ally Ikhwan tribesmen upon theEmirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the last Rashidi rulers. On 2 November 1921, Jabal Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces and subsequently incorporated into the Sultanate of Nejd.
Ikhwan raids on Transjordan were a series of plunders by theIkhwan, irregular Arab tribesmen ofNejd, onTransjordan between 1922 and 1924. Though the raids were not orchestrated by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, nothing was done by him to stop the raiding parties of his ally Ikhwanis. This however changed after the conquest of Hejaz, when the increasingly critical and negative stance of Ibn Saud on Ikhwan raids developed into an open feud and essentially a bloody conflict since 1927.
In the early 1920s, the repeatedWahhabi incursions of Ikhwan from Najd into southern parts of his territory were the most serious threat toemir Abdullah's position in Transjordan.[37] The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a smallair force, at Marka, close toAmman.[37]
In 1921, an Ikhwan party raided southern Iraq which was underthe British mandate, pillaging Shia villages, resulting in the massacre of 700 Shias.[38]
The Saudi conquest of Hejaz was a campaign, engaged by Saudi SultanAbdulaziz Al Saud to take over the HashemiteKingdom of Hejaz in 1924–1925. The campaign successfully ended in December 1925, with the fall of Jeddah. Subsequently, in 1926, Abdulaziz was proclaimed king of Hejaz, and raised Nejd to a kingdom as well in 1927. For the next five-plus years, the Saudi domains were referred to as theKingdom of Nejd and Hejaz, though they were administered as separate units.
As Saudi expansion slowed in the 1920s, some among the Ikhwan pushed for continued expansion, particularly to the British-controlled territories such asTransjordan to the north - where theIkhwan raided in 1922 and 1924. By this time, the few parts of central Arabia that hadn't been overrun by the Saudi-Ikhwan forces had treaties with Britain, and Abdulaziz was sober enough to realize the folly of a potential conflict with the British. However, the Ikhwan had been taught that all non-Wahhabis were infidels.Faisal al-Dawish of theMutair tribe andSultan bin Bajad of theOtaiba tribe, the leaders of the Ikhwan, were among those who accused Abdulaziz of going "soft", with the former reportedly telling the latter that the Saudis were "as much use as camel bags without handles".
Arebellion erupted, climaxing in abattle at Sabillah, which some have labeled a massacre but pro-Saudi sources consider to have been a fair fight.[39] Additional battles erupted through 1929 in Jabal Shammar and in the vicinity of the Awazim tribe. The rebellion was put down in 1930, with the surrender of last opposition elements. Though the survivors were jailed, their descendants remained opposed to Saudi rule, and one such descendant,Juhayman al-Otaibi, would gain infamy in 1979 when he led theGrand Mosque Seizure.[c][40]
From 1927 to 1932, Ibn Saud administered the two main portions of his realm, Nejd and the Hejaz, as separate units. On 23 September 1932, Ibn Saud proclaimed the union of his dominions into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud's eldest sonSaud becamecrown prince in 1933.[41]
The region ofAsir, in what is today southern Saudi Arabia, had been under Turkish rule from 1871 until the outbreak of theFirst World War, at which point its emir,Hasan ibn Ali Al Aid, "became virtually independent" and attempted to rule fromAbha. However, a struggle ensued between his forces and those ofMuhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi, who eventually set up the short-livedIdrisid Emirate under Saudi tutelage.[42] The emirate was subsumed by the Saudi state following a 1930 treaty which provided for the territory to come under Ibn Saud's direct control upon its emir's death.[41] The Emirate was eventually incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1934.
With the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, aZaidi state was forged inYemen under ImamMuhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din and his descendants. The Yemenis claimed parts of Asir and came to blows with the Saudis in 1933. Writing in the American journalForeign Affairs in 1934, historianHans Kohn noted, "Some European observers have wished to explain the armed conflict as a conflict betweenBritish andItalian policy in Arabia." Despite British ties to Saudi Arabia and Italian ties to Yemen, he concluded that "the rivalry between the two rulers is in no way caused or fostered by the rivalry of the two European states."[43] However, in 1998,Alexei Vassiliev wrote, "The imam was instigated both by the Italians, who promoted assistance in order to increase their influence in Yemen, and by the British, who wished to detract Imam Yahya's attention from their protectorates inAden."[44] The Saudis struck back, reaching the Yemeni port ofAl Hudaydah before signing a "treaty of Muslim friendship and Arab brotherhood" inTa'if, which was published simultaneously inMecca,Sanaa,Damascus, andCairo to highlight itspan-Arabism.[45][46]
Remarking on the implications of the treaty, which stated "that [the two parties'] nations are one and agree to consider each other's interests their own", Kohn wrote, "The foreign policy of both kingdoms will be brought into line and harmonized so that both countries will act as one country in foreign affairs. Practically, it will mean aprotectorate over the Yemen by Ibn Saud, the stronger and much more progressive partner."[46] Relations indeed remained close untilcivil war erupted in Yemen in the 1960s, at which time the country became a staging ground for battle between conservative values and those of the Egyptian revolutionaryGamal Abdel Nasser.[47]
The exact circumstances under which theIkhwan (brothers, brethren) arose remain unclear. However, it is known that they consisted ofBedouin who were imbued withWahhabi zeal at settlements known ashijras. They played an important role in the Saudi rise to power, though the extent of that role is sometimes disputed.[48]
[A].^ Unification ofSaudi Arabia (combined casualties figure estimation 7,989–8,989+) of:
