The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay thejizya (poll tax) from which Muslims were exempt.[8] Muslims were required to pay thezakat, which was earmarked or hypothecated explicitly for variousalms programmes[8][9] for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts.[10] Under the early Umayyad caliphs, prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served theByzantines. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, such as in their metropolitan province of Syria. This policy also boostedMu'awiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.[11][12] The Umayyad era is often considered the formative period ofIslamic art.[13]
During thepre-Islamic period, theUmayyads or Banu Umayya were a leading clan of theQuraysh tribe ofMecca.[14] By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads dominated the Quraysh's increasingly prosperous trade networks withSyria and developed economic and military alliances with thenomadic Arab tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, affording the clan a degree of political power in the region.[15] The Umayyads under the leadership ofAbu Sufyan ibn Harb were the principal leaders of Meccan opposition to the Islamic prophetMuhammad, but after the latter captured Mecca in 630, Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh embraced Islam.[16][17] To reconcile his influential Qurayshite tribesmen, Muhammad gave his former opponents, including Abu Sufyan, a stake in the new order.[18][19][20] Abu Sufyan and the Umayyads relocated toMedina, Islam's political centre, to maintain their new-found political influence in the nascent Muslim community.[21]
Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community.[22] Leaders of theAnsar, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven after hisemigration from Mecca in 622, discussed forwarding their own candidate out of concern that theMuhajirun, Muhammad's early followers and fellow emigrants from Mecca, would ally with their fellow tribesmen from the former Qurayshite elite and take control of the Muslim state.[23] The Muhajirun gave allegiance to one of their own, the early, elderlycompanion of Muhammad,Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), and put an end to Ansarite deliberations.[24] Abu Bakr was viewed as acceptable by the Ansar and the Qurayshite elite and was acknowledged ascaliph (leader of the Muslim community).[25] He showed favor to the Umayyads by awarding them command roles in theMuslim conquest of Syria. One of the appointees wasYazid, the son of Abu Sufyan, who owned property and maintained trade networks in Syria.[26][27]
Abu Bakr's successorUmar (r. 634–644) curtailed the influence of the Qurayshite elite in favor of Muhammad's earlier supporters in the administration and military, but nonetheless allowed the growing foothold of Abu Sufyan's sons in Syria, which was all but conquered by 638.[28] When Umar's overall commander of the provinceAbu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah died in 639, he appointed Yazid governor of Syria'sDamascus,Palestine andJordan districts.[28] Yazid died shortly after and Umar appointed his brotherMu'awiya in his place.[29] Umar's exceptional treatment of Abu Sufyan's sons may have stemmed from his respect for the family, their burgeoning alliance with the powerfulBanu Kalb tribe as a counterbalance to the influentialHimyarite settlers inHoms who viewed themselves as equals to the Quraysh in nobility, or the lack of a suitable candidate at the time, particularly amid theplague of Amwas which had already killed Abu Ubayda and Yazid.[29] Under Mu'awiya's stewardship, Syria remained domestically peaceful, organized and well-defended from its formerByzantine rulers.[30]
Map ofIslamic Syria (Bilad al-Sham), the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate. The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate,Mu'awiya I, had originally been governor of thejunds (military districts) ofDamascus (Dimashq) andJordan (al-Urdunn) in 639 before gaining authority over the rest of Syria'sjunds during the caliphate ofUthman (644–656), a member of theUmayyad family
Umar's successor,Uthman ibn Affan, was a wealthy Umayyad and early Muslim convert with marital ties to Muhammad.[31] He was elected by theshura council, composed of Muhammad's cousinAli,al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam,Talha ibn Ubayd Allah,Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas andAbd al-Rahman ibn Awf, all of whom were close, early companions of Muhammad and belonged to the Quraysh.[31][32] He was chosen over Ali because he would ensure the concentration of state power into the hands of the Quraysh, as opposed to Ali's determination to diffuse power among all of the Muslim factions.[33] From early in his reign, Uthman displayed explicit favoritism to his kinsmen, in stark contrast to his predecessors.[31][32] He appointed his family members as governors over the regions successively conquered under Umar and himself, namely much of theSasanian Empire, i.e. Iraq and Iran, and the former Byzantine territories of Syria and Egypt.[32] In Medina, he relied extensively on the counsel of his Umayyad cousins, the brothersal-Harith andMarwan ibn al-Hakam.[34] According to the historianWilferd Madelung, this policy stemmed from Uthman's "conviction that the house of Umayya, as the core clan of Quraysh, was uniquely qualified to rule in the name of Islam".[31]
Uthman's nepotism provoked the ire of the Ansar and the members of theshura.[31][32] In 645/46, he added theJazira (Upper Mesopotamia) to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship and granted the latter's request to take possession of all Byzantine crown lands in Syria to help pay his troops.[35] He had the surplus taxes from the wealthy provinces ofKufa and Egypt forwarded to the treasury in Medina, which he used at his personal disposal, frequently disbursing its funds and war booty to his Umayyad relatives.[36] Moreover, the lucrative Sasanian crown lands of Iraq, which Umar had designated as communal property for the benefit of theArab garrison towns of Kufa andBasra, were turned into caliphal crown lands to be used at Uthman's discretion.[37] Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in thekilling of the caliph in 656. In the assessment of the historianHugh N. Kennedy, Uthman was killed because of his determination to centralize control over thecaliphate's government by the traditional elite of the Quraysh, particularly his Umayyad clan, which he believed possessed the "experience and ability" to govern, at the expense of the interests, rights and privileges of many early Muslims.[34]
After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as the next Rashidun caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from the Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule.[34][38] The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha, who had opposed Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan but feared that their own influence and the power of the Quraysh, in general, would dissipate under Ali.[39][40] Backed by one of Muhammad's wives,Aisha, they attempted to rally support against Ali among the troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers.[41] Ali defeated them at theBattle of the Camel, in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and Aisha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion.[41][42] Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the caliphate's new capital.[42]
Although Ali was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a strong powerbase and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria.[41] Mu'awiya did not yet explicitly claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of complicity in his death.[43][44][45] Ali and Mu'awiya fought to a stalemate at theBattle of Siffin in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration, though the talks failed to achieve a resolution.[46] The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of Ali's supporters, who became known as theKharijites, to revolt.[47] Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while Mu'awiya's allyAmr ibn al-As ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658.[46][48] In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph inJerusalem by his Syrian tribal allies.[46] Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite dissident in January 661.[49] His sonHasan succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's invasion of Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer.[46] Mu'awiya then entered Kufa and received the allegiance of the Iraqis.[50]
AGreek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoringRoman bathhouses atHammat Gader nearTiberias in 663, the only known epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria
The recognition of Mu'awiya in Kufa, referred to as the "year of unification of the community" in the Muslim traditional sources, is generally considered the start of his caliphate.[46] With his accession, the political capital and the caliphal treasury were transferred toDamascus, the seat of Mu'awiya's power.[51] Syria's emergence as the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate was the result of Mu'awiya's twenty-year entrenchment in the province, the geographic distribution of its relatively large Arab population throughout the province in contrast to their seclusion in garrison cities in other provinces, and the domination of a single tribal confederation, theQuda'a who were led by theBanu Kalb with whom Mu'awiya had a marriage alliance, as opposed to the wide array of competing tribal groups in Iraq.[52] The long-established, formerly Christian Arab tribes in Syria, having been integrated into the military of the Byzantine Empire and theirGhassanid client kings, were "more accustomed to order and obedience" than their Iraqi counterparts, according to historianJulius Wellhausen.[53] Mu'awiya relied on the powerful Kalbite chiefIbn Bahdal and theKindite noblemanShurahbil ibn Simt alongside the Qurayshite commandersal-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri andAbd al-Rahman, the son of the prominent generalKhalid ibn al-Walid, to guarantee the loyalty of the key military components of Syria.[54] Mu'awiya preoccupied his core Syrian troops in nearly annual or bi-annual land and sea raids against Byzantium, which provided them with battlefield experience and war spoils, but secured no permanent territorial gains.[55] Toward the end of his reign the caliph entered a thirty-year truce with Byzantine emperorConstantine IV (r. 668–685),[56] obliging the Umayyads to pay the Empire an annual tribute of gold, horses and slaves.[57]
Arab-Sasanian-style Umayyad coin minted underMu'awiya I rule inBasra in 675/76 in the name of the Umayyad governorUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad. The latter's governorship later spanned all of the eastern caliphate. His fatherZiyad ibn Abihi was adopted as a half-brother by Mu'awiya I, who made him his practical viceroy over the eastern caliphate.
Mu'awiya's main challenge was reestablishing the unity of the Muslim community and asserting his authority and that of the caliphate in the provinces amid the political and social disintegration of the First Fitna.[58] There remained significant opposition to his assumption of the caliphate and to a strong central government.[59] The garrison towns of Kufa and Basra, populated by the Arab immigrants and troops who arrived during theconquest of Iraq in the 630s–640s, resented the transition of power to Syria.[60] They remained divided, nonetheless, as both cities competed for power and influence in Iraq and its eastern dependencies and remained divided between the Arab tribal nobility and the early Muslim converts, the latter of whom were divided between the pro-Alids (loyalists of Ali) and the Kharijites, who followed their own strict interpretation of Islam.[60] The caliph applied a decentralized approach to governing Iraq by forging alliances with its tribal nobility, such as the Kufan leaderal-Ash'ath ibn Qays, and entrusting the administration of Kufa and Basra to highly experienced members of theThaqif tribe,al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba and the latter's protegeZiyad ibn Abihi (whom Mu'awiya adopted as his half-brother), respectively.[61] In return for recognizing his suzerainty, maintaining order, and forwarding a token portion of the provincial tax revenues to Damascus, the caliph let his governors rule with practical independence.[60] After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate.[62] Afterward, Ziyad launched a concerted campaign to firmly establish Arab rule in the vastKhurasan region east of Iran and restart the Muslim conquests in the surrounding areas.[63] Not long after Ziyad's death, he was succeeded by his sonUbayd Allah ibn Ziyad.[63] Meanwhile, Amr ibn al-As ruled Egypt from the provincial capital ofFustat as a virtual partner of Mu'awiya until his death in 663, after which loyalist governors were appointed and the province became a practical appendage of Syria.[64] Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest ofIfriqiya (central North Africa) was launched by the commanderUqba ibn Nafi in 670, which extended Umayyad control as far asByzacena (modern southern Tunisia), where Uqba founded the permanent Arab garrison city ofKairouan.[65][66]
Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule
Genealogical tree of the Sufyanids. The names in red indicate caliphs.
In contrast to Uthman, Mu'awiya restricted the influence of his Umayyad kinsmen to the governorship of Medina, where the dispossessed Islamic elite, including the Umayyads, was suspicious or hostile toward his rule.[60][67] However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son,Yazid I, as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning the office of the caliph into a kingship.[68] The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance.[69] Yazid acceded after Mu'awiya's death in 680 and almost immediately faced a challenge to his rule by the Kufan partisans of Ali who had invited Ali's son and Muhammad's grandsonHusayn to stage a revolt against Umayyad rule from Iraq.[70] An army mobilized by Iraq's governor Ibn Ziyad intercepted and killed Husayn outside Kufa at theBattle of Karbala. Although it stymied active opposition to Umayyad authority in Iraq for the time being, the killing of Muhammad's grandson left many Muslims outraged and significantly increased Kufan hostility toward the Umayyads and sympathy for the family of Ali.[71]
The next major challenge to Yazid's rule emanated from the Hejaz whereAbd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and grandson of Abu Bakr, advocated for ashura among the Quraysh to elect the caliph and rallied opposition to the Umayyads from his headquarters in Islam's holiest sanctuary, theKa'aba in Mecca.[71] The Ansar and Quraysh of Medina also took up the anti-Umayyad cause and in 683 expelled the Umayyads from the city.[72] Yazid's Syrian troops routed the Medinans at theBattle of al-Harra and subsequently plundered Medina beforebesieging Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca.[73] The Syrians withdrew upon news of Yazid's death in 683, after which Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and soon after gained recognition in most provinces of the caliphate, including Iraq and Egypt.[74] In Syria Ibn Bahdal secured the succession of Yazid's son and appointed successorMu'awiya II, whose authority was likely restricted to Damascus and Syria's southern districts.[73][75] Mu'awiya II had been ill from the beginning of his accession, with al-Dahhak assuming the practical duties of his office, and he died in early 684 without naming a successor.[76] His death marked the end of the Umayyads' Sufyanid ruling house, called after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan.[77][a]
Umayyad authority nearly collapsed in their Syrian stronghold after the death of Mu'awiya II.[80] Al-Dahhak in Damascus, theQays tribes inQinnasrin (northern Syria) and the Jazira, theJudham in Palestine, and the Ansar and South Arabians of Homs all opted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr.[81] Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the leader of the Umayyads expelled to Syria from Medina, was prepared to submit to Ibn al-Zubayr as well but was persuaded to forward his candidacy for the caliphate by Ibn Ziyad. The latter had been driven out of Iraq and strove to uphold Umayyad rule.[80] During a summit of pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes, namely the Quda'a and their Kindite allies, organized by Ibn Bahdal in the old Ghassanid capital ofJabiya, Marwan was elected caliph in exchange for economic privileges to the loyalist tribes.[78][82] At the subsequentBattle of Marj Rahit in August 684, Marwan led his tribal allies to a decisive victory against a much larger Qaysite army led by al-Dahhak, who was slain.[78] Not long after, the South Arabians of Homs and the Judham joined the Quda'a to form the tribal confederation ofYaman.[82] Marj Rahit led to the long-runningconflict between the Qays and Yaman coalitions. The Qays regrouped in theEuphrates river fortress ofCircesium underZufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi and moved to avenge their losses.[83][84] Although Marwan regained full control of Syria in the months following the battle, the inter-tribal strife undermined the foundation of Umayyad power: the Syrian army.[85]
In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled theZubayrid governor of Egypt and replaced him with Marwan's sonAbd al-Aziz, who would rule the province until his death in 704/05.[86] Another son,Muhammad, was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira.[87] Marwan died in April 685 and was succeeded by his eldest sonAbd al-Malik.[88] Although Ibn Ziyad attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ibn Ziyad's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces ofMukhtar al-Thaqafi of Kufa at theBattle of Khazir in August 686.[89] The setback delayed Abd al-Malik's attempts to reestablish Umayyad authority in Iraq,[84] while pressures from the Byzantine Empire and raids into Syria by the Byzantines'Mardaite allies compelled him to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium in 689 which substantially increased the Umayyads' annual tribute to the Empire.[90] During his siege of Circesium in 691, Abd al-Malik reconciled with Zufar and the Qays by offering them privileged positions in the Umayyad court and army, signaling a new policy by the caliph and his successors to balance the interests of the Qays and Yaman in the Umayyad state.[91][92] With his unified army, Abd al-Malik marched against the Zubayrids of Iraq, having already secretly secured the defection of the province's leading tribal chiefs, and defeated Iraq's ruler, Ibn al-Zubayr's brotherMus'ab, at theBattle of Maskin in 691.[84][93] Afterward, the Umayyad commanderal-Hajjaj ibn Yusufbesieged Mecca and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking the end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule.[94]
Abd al-Malik introduced an independent Islamic currency, thegold dinar, in 693, which originally depicted a human figure, likely the caliph, as shown in this coin minted in 695. In 697, the figural depictions were replaced solely by Qur'anic and other Islamic inscriptions
Iraq remained politically unstable and the garrisons of Kufa and Basra had become exhausted by warfare with Kharijite rebels.[95][84] In 694 Abd al-Malik combined both cities as a single province under the governorship of al-Hajjaj, who oversaw the suppression of the Kharijite revolts in Iraq and Iran by 698 and was subsequently given authority over the rest of the eastern caliphate.[96][97] Resentment among the Iraqi troops towards al-Hajjaj's methods of governance, particularly his death threats to force participation in the war efforts and his reductions to their stipends, culminated with a mass Iraqi rebellion against the Umayyads inc. 700. The leader of the rebels was the Kufan noblemanIbn al-Ash'ath, grandson of al-Ash'ath ibn Qays.[98] Al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebels at theBattle of Dayr al-Jamajim in April.[99][100] The suppression of the revolt marked the end of the Iraqimuqātila as a military force and the beginning of Syrian military domination of Iraq.[101][100] Iraqi internal divisions, and the utilization of more disciplined Syrian forces by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert power in the province.[99]
To consolidate Umayyad rule after the Second Fitna, the Marwanids launched a series of centralization,Islamization andArabization measures.[102][103] These measures included the creation of multiple classes of Arabic-inscribed administrative media as a way to proliferate their particular political, cultural, and religious disposition to both Arab and non-Arab audiences.[104] To prevent further rebellions in Iraq, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian garrison inWasit, situated between Kufa and Basra, and instituted a more rigorous administration in the province.[99][100] Power thereafter derived from the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars andmawālī became their virtual subjects.[99] The surplus from the agriculturally richSawad lands was redirected from themuqātila to the caliphal treasury in Damascus to pay the Syrian troops in Iraq.[100][102] The system of military pay established by Umar, which paid stipends to veterans of the earlier Muslim conquests and their descendants, was ended, salaries being restricted to those in active service.[105] The old system was considered a handicap on Abd al-Malik's executive authority and financial ability to reward loyalists in the army.[105] Thus, a professional army was established during Abd al-Malik's reign whose salaries derived from tax proceeds.[105]
In 693, the Byzantine goldsolidus was replaced in Syria and Egypt with thedinar.[101][106] Initially, the new coinage contained depictions of the caliph as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community and its supreme military commander.[107] This image proved no less acceptable to Muslim officialdom and was replaced in 696 or 697 with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes and other Muslim religious formulas.[106] In 698/699, similar changes were made to the silverdirhams issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian lands of the eastern caliphate.[108] Arabic replacedPersian as the language of thedīwān in Iraq in 697,Greek in the Syriandīwān in 700, and Greek andCoptic in the Egyptiandīwān in 705/706.[106][109][110] Arabic ultimately became the sole official language of the Umayyad state,[108] but the transition in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the 740s.[111] Although the official language was changed, Greek and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were versed in Arabic kept their posts.[112] According to Gibb, the decrees were the "first step towards the reorganization and unification of the diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also a step towards a more definitely Muslim administration".[101] Indeed, it formed an important part of the Islamization measures that lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic coloring it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship.[113]
In 691/692, Abd al-Malik completed theDome of the Rock in Jerusalem.[114][115] It was possibly intended as a monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the commonAbrahamic setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity.[116][117] An alternative motive may have been to divert the religious focus of Muslims in the Umayyad realm from the Ka'aba in Zubayrid Mecca (683–692), where the Umayyads were routinely condemned during the Hajj.[116][118][117] In Damascus, Abd al-Malik's son and successoral-Walid I (r. 705–715) confiscated the cathedral ofSt. John the Baptist and founded theGreat Mosque in its place as a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to historian Nikita Elisséeff.[119] Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, historian Robert Hillenbrand calls the Damascus mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of Muslim supremacy and permanence".[120]
The expansion of the Muslim Caliphate until 750, fromWilliam R. Shepherd'sHistorical Atlas. Muslim state at the death ofMuhammad Expansion under theRashidun Caliphate Expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate
Under al-Walid I the Umayyad Caliphate reached its greatest territorial extent.[121] The war with the Byzantines had resumed under his father after the civil war,[101] with the Umayyads defeating the Byzantines at theBattle of Sebastopolis in 692.[101][122] The Umayyads frequently raided Byzantine Anatolia and Armenia in the following years.[101][123] By 705, Armenia was annexed by the caliphate along with the principalities ofCaucasian Albania andIberia, which collectively became the province ofArminiya.[124][125][126] In 695–698 the commanderHassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani restored Umayyad control over Ifriqiya after defeating the Byzantines and Berbers there.[127][128]Carthage was captured and destroyed in 698,[101][128] signaling "the final, irretrievable end ofRoman power in Africa", according to Kennedy.[129] Kairouan was firmly secured as a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town ofTunis was founded and equipped with an arsenal on Abd al-Malik's orders to establish a strong Arab fleet.[101][128] Hassan ibn al-Nu'man continued the campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queenal-Kahina, between 698 and 703.[127] His successor in Ifriqiya,Musa ibn Nusayr, subjugated the Berbers of theHawwara,Zenata andKutama confederations and advanced into theMaghreb (western North Africa), conqueringTangier andSus in 708/709. Musa's Berbermawla,Tariq ibn Ziyad, invaded theVisigothic Kingdom ofHispania (the Iberian Peninsula) in 711 and within five years most ofHispania was conquered.[121][130][131]
Umayyad coinage in India, from the time of the firstGovernor of SindMuhammad ibn Qasim. Minted in India "al-Hind" (possibly in the city ofMultan), dated AH 97 (715–716 CE): obverse circular legend"in the name of Allah, struck this dirham inal-Hind (لهند l'Hind) in the year seven and ninety".
Al-Hajjaj managed the eastern expansion from Iraq.[132] His lieutenant governor ofKhurasan,Qutayba ibn Muslim, launched numerous campaigns againstTransoxiana (Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715.[132] Despite the distance from the Arab garrison towns of Khurasan, the unfavorable terrain and climate and his enemies' numerical superiority,[133] Qutayba, through his persistent raids, gained the surrender ofBukhara in 706–709,Khwarazm andSamarkand in 711–712 andFarghana in 713.[132] During Qutayba's campaigns in conquering the Bukharan territories of Numushkat and Ramithna in 707 CE (88 AH), he faced a coalition force of Turks and theTang Empire. their army roughly numbered 200,000 soldiers of Ferghana and Sogdiana, led byKur Maghayun, who the sources identify as the Chinese emperor's nephew. a heavy battle occurred. Qutayba managed to defeat the coalition army in combat, driving its commander to retreat, and then led his army back to his base at Merv.[134][135] He established Arab garrisons and tax administrations in Samarkand and Bukhara and demolished theirZoroastrianfire temples.[136] Both cities developed as future centers of Islamic and Arabic learning.[133] Umayyad suzerainty was secured over the rest of conquered Transoxiana through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact.[137] From 708/709, al-Hajjaj's kinsmanMuhammad ibn al-Qasim conquered northwestern South Asia and established out of this new territory theprovince of Sind.[138][139] The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in theearly Muslim conquests during the reign of Caliph Umar.[140]
Al-Walid I's successor, his brotherSulayman (r. 715–717), continued his predecessors'militarist policies, but expansion mostly ground to a halt during his reign.[141] The deaths of al-Hajjaj in 714 and Qutayba in 715 left the Arab armies in Transoxiana in disarray. For the next 25 years, no further eastward conquests were undertaken and the Arabs lost territory.[142] The Tang Chinese defeated the Arabs at theBattle of Aksu in 717, forcing their withdrawal toTashkent.[143] Meanwhile, in 716, the governor of Khurasan,Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, attempted to conquer the principalities ofJurjan andTabaristan along the southernCaspian coast.[144] His Khurasani and Iraqi troops were reinforced by Syrians, marking their first deployment to Khurasan, but the Arabs' initial successes were reversed by the local Iranian coalition ofFarrukhan the Great. Afterward, the Arabs withdrew in return for a tributary agreement.[145]
On the Byzantine front, Sulayman took up his predecessor's project to capture Constantinople with increased vigor.[146] His brotherMaslamabesieged the Byzantine capital from the land,[147] whileUmar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari launched a naval campaign against the city.[141] The Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad fleets and defeated Maslama's army, prompting his withdrawal to Syria in 718.[148] The massive losses incurred during the campaign led to a partial retrenchment of Umayyad forces from the captured Byzantine frontier districts,[149][150] but already in 720, Umayyad raids against Byzantium recommenced. Nevertheless, the goal of conquering Constantinople was effectively abandoned, and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of theTaurus andAnti-Taurus Mountains, over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter-raids during the next centuries.[151][152]
Contrary to expectations of a son or brother succeeding him, Sulayman had nominated his cousin,Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, as his successor and he took office in 717. After the Arabs' severe losses in the offensive against Constantinople, Umar drew down Arab forces on the caliphate's war fronts, thoughNarbonne in modern France was conquered during his reign.[153][149][154] To maintain stronger oversight in the provinces, Umar dismissed all his predecessors' governors, his new appointees being generally competent men he could control. To that end, the massive viceroyalty of Iraq and the east was broken up.[153][155]
Umar's most significant policy entailed fiscal reforms to equalize the status of the Arabs andmawali,[156] thus remedying a long-standing issue which threatened the Muslim community.[157] Thejizya (poll tax) on themawali was eliminated.[158] Hitherto, the jizya, which was traditionally reserved for the non-Muslim majorities of the caliphate, continued to be imposed on non-Arab converts to Islam, while all Muslims who cultivated conquered lands were liable to pay thekharaj (land tax). Since avoidance of taxation incentivized both mass conversions to Islam and abandonment of land for migration to the garrison cities, it put a strain on tax revenues, especially in Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan.[159] Thus, "the Umayyad rulers had a vested interest in preventing the conquered peoples from accepting Islam or forcing them to continue paying those taxes from which they claimed exemption as Muslims", according to Hawting.[160] To prevent a collapse in revenue, the converts' lands would become the property of their villages and remain liable for the full rate of thekharaj.[157]
In tandem, Umar intensified the Islamization drive of his Marwanid predecessors, enacting measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and inaugurating Islamiciconoclasm.[161] His position among the Umayyad caliphs is unusual, in that he became the only one to have been recognized in subsequent Islamic tradition as a righteous and legitimate caliph (khalifa) and not merely someone who was a worldly king (malik).[162]
After the death of Umar II, another son of Abd al-Malik,Yazid II (r. 720–724) became caliph. Not long after his accession, another mass revolt against Umayyad rule was staged in Iraq, this time by the prominent statesmanYazid ibn al-Muhallab. The latter declared a holy war against the Umayyads, took control of Basra and Wasit and gained the support of the Kufan elite. The caliph's Syrian army defeated the rebels and pursued and nearly eliminated the influentialMuhallabids, marking the suppression of the last major Iraqi revolt against the Umayyads.[163]
Yazid II reversed Umar II's equalization reforms, reimposing the jizya on themawali, which sparked revolts in Khurasan in 721 or 722 that persisted for some twenty years and met strong resistance among the Berbers of Ifriqiya, where the Umayyad governor was assassinated by his discontented Berber guards.[164] Warfare on the frontiers was also resumed, with renewed annual raids against the Byzantines and theKhazars inTranscaucasia.[165]
The city ofResafa, site of Hisham's palace and courtMusicians and hunting cavalier, circa 730 CE. Floor fresco from Hisham'sQasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, Syria. National Museum, Damascus.[166]
The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph wasHisham (r. 724–743), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court atResafa in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids intoAnatolia, but also in a major defeat (theBattle of Akroinon), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion.
From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of theVisigothic Kingdom paved the way to thepermanent occupation of most of Iberia by the Umayyads (starting in 711), andon into south-eastern Gaul (last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by theFranks at theBattle of Tours in 732. Arab expansion had already been limited following theBattle of Toulouse in 721. In 739 a majorBerber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. From it emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the caliphate. It is also regarded as the beginning of Moroccan independence, asMorocco would never again come under the rule of an eastern caliph or any other foreign power until the 20th century. It was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. InIndia, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the south IndianChalukya dynasty and by the north IndianPratiharas, stagnating further eastwards Arab expansion.[167][168][169]
The Umayyad Caliphate in 740 CE
In theCaucasus, theconfrontation with theKhazars peaked under Hisham: the Arabs establishedDerbent as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at theBattle of Marj Ardabil in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as theVolga, but the Khazars remained unsubdued.
Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue bothTokharistan, with its centre atBalkh, andTransoxiana, with its centre atSamarkand. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially theSogdians of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the "Day of Thirst" in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor ofKhurasan, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues from the province.
Discontent among the Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in theBattle of the Defile in 731. In 734,al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt that received broad backing from Arab settlers and native inhabitants alike, capturing Balkh but failing to takeMerv. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved. The problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads to their end.
Hisham was succeeded byAl-Walid II (743–744), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (includingQusayr Amra andKhirbat al-Mafjar) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession and by persecuting theQadariyya.
In 744,Yazid III, a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, while his army killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign.
Yazid had appointed his brother,Ibrahim, as his successor, butMarwan II (744–750), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north toHarran, in present-dayTurkey. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls ofHoms and Damascus in retaliation.
Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth firstDahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747, Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time a more serious threat had arisen inKhorasan.
TheHashimiyya movement (a sub-sect of theKaysanites Shia), led by theAbbasid family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of theHashim clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt ofMukhtar, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.
Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism (dawah). They sought support for a "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs (mawali), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement.
Around 746,Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of theblack flag. He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor,Nasr ibn Sayyar, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq,Wasit, wasplaced under siege, and in November of the same yearAbul Abbas as-Saffah was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa.[citation needed] At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in theBattle of the Zab, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt.[citation needed] Some Umayyads in Syria continued to resist the takeover. The Umayyad princesAbu Muhammad al-Sufyani, al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, and Hashim ibn Yazid launched revolts in Syria and the Islamic–Byzantine frontier around late 750, but they were defeated.[170]
The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that ofUmar II, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred. One grandson of Hisham,Abd al-Rahman I, survived, escaped across North Africa, and established an emirate inMoorishIberia (Al-Andalus). In a claim unrecognized outside of al-Andalus, he maintained that the Umayyad Caliphate, the true, authentic caliphate, more legitimate than the Abbasids, was continued through him inCórdoba. It was to survive for centuries.
Some Umayyads also survived in Syria,[171] and their descendants would once more attempt to restore their old regime during theFourth Fitna. Two Umayyads,Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani and Maslama ibn Ya'qub, successively seized control of Damascus from 811 to 813, and declared themselves caliphs. However, their rebellions were suppressed.[172]
Previté-Orton argues that the reason for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaic to Islam. Thesemawalis (clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab overlords. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire.[173]
The early Umayyad caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the administrative practices and political institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously.[174] These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection, and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments.
Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.[175]
As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's work was recorded inGreek,Coptic, andPersian. It was only during the reign ofAbd al-Malik that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.[175]
The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and the Arab tribes who originally served in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire in Syria. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as Christian Syrian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army Ministry, the Diwan Al-Jaysh, and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities.[176] The Umayyad Syrian forces specialized in close order infantry warfare and favored using a kneeling spear wall formation in battle, probably as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting.[177][178]
The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period.Byzantine coinage was used until 658; Byzantine gold coins were still in use until the monetary reformsc. 700.[179] In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus, which were initially similar to pre-existing coins but evolved in an independent direction. These were the first coins minted by a Muslim government in history.[175]
Early Islamic coins re-used Byzantine and Sasanian iconography directly but added new Islamic elements.[180] So-called "Arab-Byzantine" coins replicated Byzantine coins and were minted in Levantine cities before and after the Umayyads rose to power.[181] Some examples of these coins, likely minted in Damascus, copied the coins of Byzantine emperorHeraclius, including a depiction of the emperor and his sonHeraclius Constantine. On the reverse side, the traditional Byzantine cross-on-steps image was modified to avoid any explicitly non-Islamic connotation.[180]
In the 690s, under Abd al-Malik's reign, a new period of experimentations began.[180][182] Some"Arab-Sasanian" coins dated between 692 and 696, associated with the mints in Iraq under governorBishr ibn Marwan, stopped using the Sasanian image of thefire altar and replaced it with three male figures standing in Arab dress. This was possibly an attempt to depict the act of Muslim prayer or the delivery of thekhutba (Friday sermon).[182] Another coin minted probably between 695 and 698 features the image of a spear under an arch. This has been variously interpreted as representing amihrab or a "sacral arch", the latter being a late antique motif. The spear is believed to be the spear ('anaza) that Muhammad carried before him when entering the mosque.[182]
Between 696 and 699, the caliph introduced a new system of coinage of gold, silver, and bronze.[180][181] The coins generally featured Arabic inscriptions without any images, ending the earlier iconographic traditions.[181] The main gold unit was thedinar (from Romandenarius), which was worth 20 silver coins. It was most likely modeled on the Byzantinesolidus.[181] The silver coin was called adirham (from Greekdrachma). Its size and shape was based onSasanian coins and they were minted in much larger quantities than in the earlier Byzantine era.[181] The bronze coin was called afals orfulus (from Byzantinefollis).[181]
One group of bronze coins from Palestine,[183] dated after the coinage reform of the late 690s, features the image of a seven-branchedmenorah and then later of a five-branched menorah, topped by an Arabic inscription of theshahada.[180] These images may have been based on Christian representations of the menorah[180] or on earlierHasmonean models.[183] The switch to a five-branched version may have been intended to further differentiate this depiction from Jewish and Christian versions.[180]
To assist the caliph in administration there were six boards at the centre: Diwan al-Kharaj (the Board of Revenue), Diwan al-Rasa'il (the Board of Correspondence), Diwan al-Khatam (the Board of Signet), Diwan al-Barid (the Board of Posts), Diwan al-Qudat (the Board of Justice) and Diwan al-Jund (the Military Board).
The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finances of the central government. It also imposed and collected taxes from the empire and disbursed the revenue of the state.
A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyads. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It coordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat.
In order to reduce forgery, Diwan al-Khatam (Bureau of Registry), a kind of state chancellery, was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and dispatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive developed in Damascus by the Umayyads under Abd al-Malik. Under the Umayyads, lead seals bearing Arabic text became an important tool in the construction of a distinct Arab and Muslim political entity and which were critical to the proliferation of the state's Islamic orientation.[184]
Mu'awiya introduced the postal service, Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire, and Walid made full use of it. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz developed it further by buildingcaravanserais at stages along the Khurasan highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles (19 km) each and each stage had horses, donkeys, or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of government officials, but travelers and their important dispatches were also benefited by the system. The postal carriages were also used for the swift transport of troops. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under governorYusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi, the postal department of Iraq cost 4,000,000 dirhams a year.
In the early period of Islam, justice was administered by Muhammad and the Rashidun caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Caliphate, Umar I had to separate the judiciary from the general administration and appointed the firstqadi in Egypt as early as AD 643/23 AH. After 661, a series of judges served in Egypt during the caliphates of Hisham and Walid II.
The Diwan of Umar, assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races, underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyads. The Umayyads meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. Hisham reformed it and paid only to those who participated in the battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system, the Umayyads reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the center, two wings, vanguards, and rearguards, following the same formation while on the march or on a battlefield. Marwan II (740–50) abandoned the old division and introduced the Kurdus (cohort), a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three divisions: infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used the arradah (ballista), the manjaniq (mangonel), and the dabbabah or kabsh (battering ram). The heavy engines, siege machines, and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.
Ivory (circa 8th century) discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima,Jordan. The style indicates an origin in northeasternIran, the base of Hashimiyya military power.[185]
The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes:
The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. The Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims.
As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population consisted of non-Arabs. This caused social unrest, as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. As conversions increased, tax revenues from non-Muslims also decreased to dangerous lows. These issues continued to worsen until they helped cause theAbbasid Revolt in the 740s.[186]
Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, andpagans, were calleddhimmis. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. More specifically, non-Muslims had to pay a tax, known asjizya, which the Muslims did not have to pay; Muslims would instead pay thezakat tax. If non-Muslims converted to Islam, they would cease paying jizya and would instead pay zakat.
Although the Umayyads were harsh when it came to defeating their Zoroastrian adversaries,[187] they did offer protection and relative religious tolerance to the Zoroastrians who accepted their authority.[187] As a matter of fact,Umar II was reported to have said in one of his letters commanding not to "destroy a synagogue or a church or temple of fire worshippers (meaning theZoroastrians) as long as they have reconciled with and agreed upon with the Muslims".[188]Fred Donner says that Zoroastrians in the northern parts of Iran were hardly penetrated by the "believers", winning virtually complete autonomy in-return for tribute-tax or jizyah.[189] Donner adds "Zoroastrians continued to exist in large numbers in northern and western Iran and elsewhere for centuries after the rise of Islam, and indeed, much of the canon of Zoroastrian religious texts was elaborated and written down during the Islamic period."[189]
Christians and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.[190] Important Christian writers from the Umayyad period include the theologianJohn of Damascus, bishopCosmas of Maiuma,Pope Benjamin I of Alexandria andIsaac of Nineveh.[191]
Although non-Muslims could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they held many bureaucratic positions within the government. An important example of Christian employment in the Umayyad government is that ofSarjun ibn Mansur. He was aMelkiteChristian official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. The son of a prominentByzantine official ofDamascus, he was a favourite of the early Umayyad caliphsMu'awiya I andYazid I, and served as the head of the fiscal administration forSyria from the mid-7th century until the year 700, when CaliphAbd al-Malik ibn Marwan dismissed him as part of his efforts to Arabicize the administration of the caliphate. According to the Muslim historiansal-Baladhuri andal-Tabari, Sarjun was amawla of the firstUmayyad caliph,Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680),[b] serving as his "secretary and the person in charge of his business".[191][193] The hagiographies, although less reliable, also assign to him a role in the administration, even as "ruler" (archon or evenamir), of Damascus and its environs, where he was responsible for collecting the revenue.[191] In this capacity, he is attested in later collections of source material such as that ofal-Mas'udi.[192] Sarjun ibn Mansur was replaced bySulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani, another Christian.[194]
Mu'awiya's marriage toMaysun bint Bahdal (Yazid's mother) was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of theKalb tribe, which was a largeSyriac Orthodox Christian Arab tribe in Syria.[195] The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria.[46] After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysun, Mu'awiya used the Syriac Orthodox Christians against the Byzantines.
Tom Holland writes that Christians, Jews,Samaritans andManichaeans were all treated well by Mu'awiya.[196] Mu'awiya even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake.[197] Holland also writes that, "Savagely though Mu'awiya prosecuted his wars against the Romans, yet his subjects, no longer trampled by rival armies, no longer divided by hostile watchtowers, knew only peace at last. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted."[196]
The Umayyads constructed grandcongregational mosques and palaces within their empire. Most of their surviving monuments are located in theLevant region, their main base of power. They also continued the existing Muslim policy of building new garrison cities (amsar) in their provinces that served as bases for further expansion.[199] Their most famous constructions include theDome of the Rock inJerusalem and theGreat Mosque of Damascus,[200] while other constructions includeddesert palaces, such asKhirbat al-Majfar andQusayr 'Amra.[199] Among these projects, the construction of the Great Mosque in Damascus reflected the diversity of the empire, as Greek, Persian, Coptic, Indian and Maghrebi craftsmen were recruited to build it.[201]
Under Umayyad patronage,Islamic architecture was derived from establishedByzantine andSasanian architectural traditions, but it also innovated by combining elements of these styles together, experimenting with new building types, and implementing lavish decorative programs.[199]Byzantine-style mosaics are prominently featured in both the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, but the lack of human figures in their imagery was a new trait that demonstrates an Islamictaboo on figural representation in religious art. Palaces were decorated with floormosaics,frescoes, andrelief carving, and some of these included representations of human figures and animals.[199] Umayyad architecture was thus an important transitional period during which early Islamic architecture and visual culture began to develop its own distinct identity.[202]
The Umayyad Caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab elite families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted Muslims (mawali). Therefore, they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."[204]
During the period of the Umayyads, Arabic became the administrative language and the process ofArabization was initiated in the Levant, Mesopotamia, North Africa, and Iberia.[205] State documents and currency were issued in Arabic. Conversions to Islam also created a growing population of Muslims in the territory of the caliphate.
According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during theRashidun Caliphate) to a dynastic one.[200] However, the Umayyad caliphs do seem to have understood themselves as the representatives of God on earth, and to have been responsible for the "definition and elaboration of God's ordinances, or in other words the definition or elaboration of Islamic law."[206]
The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (mulk, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (khilafa). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not askhalifat rasul Allah ("successor of the messenger of God", the title preferred by the tradition), but rather askhalifat Allah ("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars."[207] In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. Inreconstructing this history, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories ofTabari andBaladhuri, that were written in the Abbasid court atBaghdad.[citation needed]
The bookAl Muwatta, by Imam Malik, was written in the early Abbasid period in Medina. It does not contain any anti-Umayyad content because it was more concerned with what the Quran and what Muhammad said and was not a history book on the Umayyads.[citation needed] Even the earliest pro-Shia accounts of al-Masudi are more balanced. Al-Masudi'sIbn Hisham is the earliest Shia account of Mu'awiya. He recounted that Mu'awiya spent a great deal of time in prayer, in spite of the burden of managing a large empire.[208] After killing off most of the Umayyads and destroying the graves of the Umayyad rulers apart fromMu'awiya andUmar ibn Abd al-Aziz, the history books were written during the later Abbasid period are more anti-Umayyad.[209] The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are more anti-Umayyad, despite Iran being Sunni at the time. There was much anti-Arab sentiment in Iran after the fall of the Persian Empire.[210]
ModernArab nationalism regards the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden Age which it sought to emulate. This is particularly true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria, centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus.[211] The Umayyad banners were white, after the banner of Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan;[212] it is now one of the fourPan-Arab colors which appear in various combinations on the flags of most Arab countries.
Some Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government.[213] As the Muslims took over cities, they left the people's political representatives, the Roman tax collectors, and the administrators in the office. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the people's political representatives. Both the central and local governments were compensated for the services each provided. Many Christian cities used some of the taxes to maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later, the Umayyads were criticized by many Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam.[214]
Later, whenUmar ibn Abd al-Aziz came to power, he reduced these taxes. He is therefore praised as one of the greatest Muslim rulers after the fourRashidun caliphs. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (who lived in 829 and wrote a biography on Umar Ibn Abd al-Aziz)[215] stated that the reduction in these taxes stimulated the economy and created wealth but it also reduced the government's budget, including eventually the defense budget.
The only Umayyad ruler who is unanimously praised by Sunni sources for his devout piety and justice is Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.[citation needed] In his efforts to spreadIslam, he established liberties for theMawali by abolishing thejizya tax for converts to Islam. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam stated that Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz also stopped the personal allowance offered to his relatives, stating that he could only give them an allowance if he gave an allowance to everyone else in the empire. After Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was poisoned in 720, successive governments tried to reverse Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies, but rebellion resulted.[citation needed]
The negative view of the Umayyads held byShias is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan".[216] According to Shia hadiths, which are not considered authentic by Sunnis,Ali described them as the worstFitna.[217] In Shia sources, the Umayyad Caliphate is widely described as "tyrannical, anti-Islamic and godless".[218] Shias point out that the founder of the dynasty, Muawiyah, declared himself a caliph in 657 and went to war against Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, the ruling caliph Ali, clashing at theBattle of Siffin. Muawiyah also declared his son, Yazid, as his successor inbreach of a treaty with Hassan, Muhammad's grandson. Another of Muhammad's grandsons,Husayn ibn Ali, would be killed by Yazid in theBattle of Karbala. Further Shia Imams,Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs.
Asked for an explanation of the prophecies in theBook of Revelation (12:3),`Abdu'l-Bahá suggests inSome Answered Questions that the "great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads",[219] refers to the Umayyad caliphs who "rose against the religion of Prophet Muhammad and against the reality of Ali".[220][221]
The seven heads of the dragon are symbolic of the seven provinces of the lands dominated by the Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxiana. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III, which were not accounted for in this interpretation.
Genealogical tree of theUmayyad family. In blue: CaliphUthman, one of the fourRashidun caliphs. In green, the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus. In yellow, the Umayyad emirs of Córdoba. In orange, the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba. Abd Al-Rahman III was an emir until 929 when he proclaimed himself caliph. Muhammad is included (in caps) to show the kinship of the Umayyads with him. Seeinteractive version of chart
^The eldest surviving Sufyanid,al-Walid ibn Utba, the son of Mu'awiya I's full brother, died shortly after Mu'awiya II's death, while another paternal uncle of the deceased caliph,Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan, who had support from the Kalb of the Jordan district, recognized the caliphate of his maternal uncle Ibn al-Zubayr.[75] Ibn Bahdal favored Mu'awiya II's brothers,Khalid andAbd Allah, for the succession, but they were viewed as too young and inexperienced by most of the pro-Umayyad tribal nobility in Syria.[78][79]
^Mu'awiya I was generally favourably disposed towards Christians and, according toal-Ya'qubi, the first Muslim caliph to employ Christians in administrative positions.[192]
^Yalman, Suzan (October 2001)."The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)".Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved23 September 2020.
^Egan, Virginia; Bikai, Patricia M. (July 1999). "Archaeology in Jordan".American Journal of Archaeology.103 (3):513–514.doi:10.2307/506971.JSTOR506971.
^abc"Sarğūn ibn Manṣūr ar-Rūmī".Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online (in German). De Gruyter. 2013.Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved3 August 2019.
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