The modern nameUkraintsi (Ukrainians) is derived fromUkraina (Ukraine), a name first documented in theKievan Chronicle under the year 1187. The termsUkrainiany (first recorded in theGalician–Volhynian Chronicle under the year 1268[a]),Ukrainnyky, and evennarod ukrainskyi (the Ukrainian people) were used sporadically beforeUkraintsi attained currency under the influence of the writings of Ukrainian activists in Russian-ruled Ukraine in the 19th century.[56] From the 14th to the 16th centuries, the western portions of the European part of what is now known as Russia, plus the territories of northern Ukraine and Belarus (Ruthenia), were largely known asRus, continuing the tradition ofKievan Rus'. People of these territories were usually calledRus orRusyns (known as Ruthenians inWestern and Central Europe).[57]
TheUkrainian language is, like modern Russian and Belarusian, a descendent of Old East Slavic.[58][59] In Western and Central Europe it was known by the exonym "Ruthenian". In the 16th and 17th centuries, with the establishment of theZaporozhian Sich, names of Ukraine and Ukrainian began to be used in Sloboda Ukraine.[60] After the decline of the Zaporozhian Sich and the establishment ofImperial Russian hegemony in Left Bank Ukraine, Ukrainians became more widely known by Russians as "Little Russians", with the majority of Ukrainian elites espousingLittle Russian identity and adopting the Russian language, as Ukrainian was outlawed in almost all contexts.[61][62][63]
Thisexonym—regarded now as a humiliating imperialist imposition—did not spread widely among the peasantry, which constituted the majority of the population.[64] Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as "Ukraine" (a name associated with the Zaporozhian Sich, with theHetmanate and with their struggle against Poles, Russians, Turks and Crimean Tatars) and to themselves and their language asRuthenians/Ruthenian.[62][63][need quotation to verify]
With the publication ofIvan Kotliarevsky'sEneyida (Aeneid) in 1798, which established the modernUkrainian language, and with the subsequent Romantic revival of national traditions and culture, theethnonymUkrainians and the notion of a Ukrainian language came into more prominence at the beginning of the 19th century and gradually replaced the words "Rusyns" and "Ruthenian(s)". In areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century (Western Ukraine), Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer.[61][62][63][65] The appellationUkrainians initially came into common usage inCentral Ukraine[66][67] and did not take hold inGalicia andBukovina until the latter part of the 19th century, inTranscarpathia not until the 1930s, and in thePrešov Region not until the late 1940s.[68][69][70]
The modern nameUkraintsi (Ukrainians) derives fromUkraina (Ukraine), a name first documented in 1187.[71] Several scientific theories attempt to explain theetymology of the term. According to the traditional theory, it derives from the Proto-Slavic root*kraj-, which has two meanings—one being the homeland as in "nash rodnoi kraj" (our homeland), and the other being "edge, border"—and originally had the sense of "periphery", "borderland" or "frontier region".[72][73][74] According to another theory, the termukraina should be distinguished from the termokraina: whereas the latter term means "borderland", the former has the meaning of "cut-off piece of land", thus acquiring the connotation of "our land", "land allotted to us".[72][75]
In the last three centuries, the population of Ukraine experienced periods ofpolonisation andrussification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity.[76][77]
Settlement of Ukrainians around the world in 1920, by Ukrainian politicianYuri Hasenko"Ethnographical Map of Ukraine" printed just afterWorld War II—land inhabited by a plurality of ethnic Ukrainians is coloured rose (not to be confused with the colour given toKalmyks, also rose)Population of ethnic Ukrainians in Ukraine byoblast (2001)
Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where they make up over three-quarters of the population. The largest population of Ukrainians outside of Ukraine lives in Russia where about 1.9 million Russian citizens identify as Ukrainian, while millions of others (primarily insouthern Russia andSiberia) have some Ukrainian ancestry.[78] The inhabitants of theKuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities: Ukrainian, Russian (an identity supported by theSoviet regime) and "Cossack".[79] Approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in theRussian Far East in an area known historically as "Green Ukraine".[80]
In a 2011 national poll of Ukraine, 49% of Ukrainians said they had relatives living in Russia.[81]
According to some previous assumptions,[citation needed] an estimated number of almost 2.4 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America (1,359,655 in Canada and 1,028,492 in the United States). Large numbers of Ukrainians also live in Brazil (600,000);[b] Kazakhstan (338,022); Moldova (325,235); Argentina (305,000); (Germany) (272,000); Italy (234,354); Belarus (225,734); Uzbekistan (124,602); the Czech Republic (110,245); Spain (90,530–100,000) and Romania (51,703–200,000).[clarification needed] There are also large Ukrainian communities in such countries as Latvia, Portugal, France, Australia, Paraguay, the UK, Israel, Slovakia, Kyrgyzstan, Austria, Uruguay and the formerYugoslavia. Generally, the Ukrainian diaspora is present in more than 120 countries of the world.[citation needed]
The number of Ukrainians in Poland amounted to some 51,000 people in 2011 (according to thePolish census).[82] Since 2014, the country has experienced a large increase in immigration from Ukraine.[83] More recent data put the number of Ukrainian migrant workers at 1.2[84]–1.3 million in 2016.[85][c][clarification needed]
In the last decades of the 19th century, many Ukrainians were forced by theTsarist autocracy to move to the Asian regions of Russia, while many of their counterpart Slavs underAustro-Hungarian rule emigrated to theNew World in search of work and better economic opportunities.[86] According to some sources in the first decade of the 2000s, around 20 million people outside Ukraine identify as having Ukrainian ethnicity;[87][88][89] however, the official data of the respective countries calculated together does not show more than 10 million. In any event, Ukrainians have one of the largestdiasporas in the world.[citation needed]
At the beginning of the 9th century,Varangians used the waterways of Eastern Europe for military raids and trade, particularly thetrade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. Until the 11th century these Varangians also served as key mercenary troops for a number of princes in medieval Kiev, as well as for some of theByzantine emperors, while others occupied key administrative positions in Kievan Rus' society, and eventually became slavicized.[92][93] Besides other cultural traces, several Ukrainian names show traces ofNorse origins as a result of influences from that period.[94][95]
Differentiation between separate East Slavic groups began to emerge in the later medieval period; and an East Slavicdialect continuum developed within thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, with theRuthenian language emerging as a written standard. The active development of a concept of a Ukrainian nation and the Ukrainian language began with theUkrainian National Revival in the early 19th century in times when Ruthenians (Русини) changed their name because of the regional name. In theSoviet era (1917–1991),official historiography emphasized "the cultural unity of 'proto-Ukrainians' and 'proto-Russians' in the fifth and sixth centuries".[96]
A poll conducted in April 2022 by the polling organisationRating found that the vast majority (91%) of Ukrainians (excluding theRussian-occupied territories of Ukraine) do not support the thesis that "Russians and Ukrainians areone people".[97]
In a survey of 97 genomes for diversity in full genome sequences among self-identified Ukrainians from Ukraine, a study identified more than 13 million genetic variants, representing about a quarter of the total genetic diversity discovered in Europe.[101] Among these, nearly 500,000 were previously undocumented and likely to be unique for this population, medically relevant mutations whose prevalence in the Ukrainian genomes differed significantly compared to other European genome sequences, particularly from Western Europe and Russia.[102] Ukrainian genomes form a single cluster positioned between the Northern European populations on one side, and Western European populations on the other.[4]
Principal Component Analysis of European populations from the Genome Ukraine Project
There was a significant overlap with Central European populations as well as with people from theBalkans.
Structure plot of European populations from the Genome Ukraine Project
In addition to the close geographic distance between these populations, this may also reflect the insufficient representation of samples from the surrounding populations.[citation needed]
The Ukrainian gene-pool includes the following Y-haplogroups, in order from the most prevalent:[103]
Roughly all R1a Ukrainians carryR1a-Z282; it has been found significantly only in Eastern Europe.[104]Chernivtsi Oblast is the only region in Ukraine where Haplogroup I2a occurs more frequently than R1a, much less frequent even inIvano-Frankivsk Oblast.[105] In comparison to their northern and eastern neighbors, Ukrainians have a similar percentage ofHaplogroup R1a-Z280 (43%) in their population—compareBelarusians,Russians andLithuanians (55%, 46%, and 42% respectively). Populations in Eastern Europe that have never been Slavic do as well. Ukrainians in Chernivtsi Oblast (near the Romanian border) have a higher percentage ofI2a as opposed to R1a, which is typical of the Balkan region, but a smaller percentage than Russians of the N1c1 lineage found among Finno-Ugric, Baltic and Siberian populations, and also lessR1b thanWest Slavs.[106][107][108] In terms of haplogroup distribution, the genetic pattern of Ukrainians most closely resembles that of Belarusians.
The presence of the N1c lineage is explained by a contribution of the assimilatedFinno-Ugric tribes.[109]
Within Ukraine and adjacent areas, there are several other distinct ethnic sub-groups, especially in western Ukraine: places likeZakarpattia andHalychyna. Among them the best known areHutsuls,[110]Volhynians,Boykos andLemkos (otherwise known asCarpatho-Rusyns—a derivative ofCarpathianRuthenians)—[dubious –discuss] each with particular areas of settlement, dialect, dress and folk traditions.[111]
Ukraine has had a very turbulent history, a fact explained by its geographical position.
Kievan Rus'
In the 9th century, theVarangians fromScandinavia conquered the proto-Slavic tribes on the territory of today's Ukraine, Belarus and western Russia and laid the groundwork for theKievan Rus' state. The ancestors of the Ukrainian nation, such asPolianians, had an important role in the development and culturalization of the Kievan Rus' state. The internecine wars between the princes of Rus', which began after the death ofYaroslav the Wise,[112] led to the political fragmentation of the state into a number of principalities. Because the princes' quarreling left Kievan Rus' vulnerable to foreign attacks, the invasions of the Mongols in 1236 and 1240 finally destroyed the state. Another important state in Ukrainians history is theKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (1199–1349).[113][114][clarification needed]
Cossack Hetmanate
The third important state in Ukrainian history is theCossack Hetmanate. Since the late 15th century, the Cossacks ofZaporizhzhia controlled the lower bends of the Dnieper River between Russia, Poland, and theTatars of Crimea, with the fortified capital,Zaporozhian Sich. HetmanBohdan Khmelnytsky is one of the most celebrated and at the same time most controversial political figures in Ukraine's early-modern history. A brilliant military leader, his greatest achievement in the process of national revolution was the formation of the Cossack Hetmanate state of the Zaporozhian Host (1648–1782).
The period of theRuin in the late 17th century is characterised by the disintegration of Ukrainian statehood and general decline. During the Ruin, Ukraine became divided along the Dnieper River intoLeft-Bank Ukraine andRight-Bank Ukraine, and the two halves became hostile to each other. The Ukrainian leaders during this period are considered largely opportunists and men of little vision who could not muster broad popular support for their policies.[115] At the end of the century, there were roughly 4 million Ukrainians.[116]
Short-lived independence
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
In the final stages of the First World War, a powerful struggle for an independent Ukrainian state developed in the central Ukrainian territories, which, until 1917, were part of theRussian Empire. The newly established Ukrainian government, theCentral Rada, headed byMykhailo Hrushevsky, issued four universals, the Fourth of which, dated 22 January 1918, declared the independence and sovereignty of theUkrainian National Republic (UNR) on 25 January 1918. The session of the Central Rada on 29 April 1918 ratified the Constitution of the UNR and elected Hrushevsky president.[76]
During the 1920s, under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership ofMykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in the Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy ofKorenisation (literally "indigenisation").[citation needed]
In 1932–1933, millions of Ukrainians were starved to death by the Soviet regime, which led to afamine known as theHolodomor.[117] The Soviet regime remained silent about the Holodomor and provided no aid to the victims or the survivors. But news and information about what was going on reached the West and evoked public responses in Polish-ruled Western Ukraine and in theUkrainian diaspora. Since the 1990s, the independent Ukrainian state, particularly under PresidentViktor Yushchenko, the Ukrainian mass media and academic institutions, many foreign governments, most Ukrainian scholars, and many foreign scholars have viewed and written about the Holodomor as genocide and issued official declarations and publications to that effect. Modern scholarly estimates of the direct loss of human life due to thefamine range between 2.6 million,[118][119] (3–3.5 million),[120] and 12 million,[121] although much higher numbers are usually published in the media and cited in political debates.[122] As of March 2008, theparliament of Ukraine and the governments of several countries, including the United States, have recognized the Holodomor as an act ofgenocide.[d]
Following theInvasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus,Eastern Galicia andVolhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Soviet Ukraine. When the German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, those regions temporarily became part of the Nazi-controlledReichskommissariat Ukraine (Ukrainian Realm Commissariat). In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million to 7 million.[citation needed] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to have numbered 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944, with about 50% being ethnic Ukrainian. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses, 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[citation needed]
In 1943, under the command of Roman Shukhevych, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Ukrayins'ka Povstans'ka Armiia, or UPA) began ethnic cleansing.[citation needed] Shukhevych was one of the perpetrators of the Galicia-Volhynia massacres of tens of thousands of Polish civilians. It is unclear to what extent Shuchevych was responsible for the massacres of Poles in Volhynia, but he certainly condoned them after some time and also directed the massacres of Poles in Eastern Galicia. Historian Per Anders Rudling has accused the Ukrainian diaspora and Ukrainian academics of "ignoring, glossing over, or outright denying" Shuchevych's role in this and other war crimes.[citation needed]
Historical maps of Ukraine
The Ukrainian state has occupied a number of territories since its initial foundation. Although most of these territories have been located within Eastern Europe, it has also at times extended well intoEurasia and South-Eastern Europe, as depicted in the maps in the gallery below. At times there has also been a distinct lack of a Ukrainian state because its territories were, on a number of occasions, annexed by its more powerful neighbours.
Historical maps of Ukraine and its predecessors
European territory inhabited by East Slavic tribes in 8th and 9th century.
Historical map of Kievan Rus' and territory of Ukraine: last 20 years of the state (1220–1240).
The watershed period in the development of modern Ukrainian national consciousness was the struggle for independence during the creation of theUkrainian People's Republic from 1917 to 1921.[123] A concerted effort to reverse the growth of Ukrainian national consciousness was begun by the regime ofJoseph Stalin in the late 1920s, continuing with minor interruptions until the most recent times. The man-madefamine of 1932–33, the deportations of the so-calledkulaks, the physical annihilation of the nationally conscious intelligentsia, and terror in general were used to destroy and subdue the Ukrainian nation.[124] Even after Joseph Stalin's death, the concept of a Russified though multiethnic Soviet people was officially promoted, according to which non-Russian nationals were relegated to second-class status[citation needed]. Despite this, many Ukrainians played prominent roles in the Soviet Union, including such public figures asSemen Tymoshenko.
The creation of a sovereign and independent Ukraine in 1991, however, pointed to the failure of the policy of the "merging of nations" and to the enduring strength of the Ukrainian national consciousness.
Biculturalism is especially present in southeastern Ukraine, where there is a significant Russian minority. Historical colonisation of Ukraine is one reason that creates confusion about national identity to this day.[125] Many citizens of Ukraine have adopted Ukrainian national identity in the past 20 years. According to the concept of nationality dominant in Eastern Europe, the Ukrainians are people whose native language is Ukrainian (an objective criterion) whether or not they are nationally conscious, and all those who identify themselves as Ukrainian (a subjective criterion) whether or not they speak Ukrainian.[126]
Attempts to introduce a territorial-political concept of Ukrainian nationality on the Western European model (presented by political philosopherVyacheslav Lypynsky) were unsuccessful until the 1990s. Territorial loyalty has also been manifested by the historical national minorities living in Ukraine. The official declaration of Ukrainian sovereignty of 16 July 1990 stated that "citizens of the Republic of all nationalities constitute the people of Ukraine."[127][128]
Due to Ukraine's geographical location, its culture primarily exhibits Eastern European influence, as well as Central European to an extent (primarily in the western region). Over the years, it has been influenced by movements such as those brought about during theByzantine Empire and theRenaissance. Today, the country is somewhat culturally divided with the western regions bearing a stronger Central European influence and the eastern regions showing a significant Russian influence. A strongChristian culture was predominant for many centuries, although Ukraine was also the center of conflict between the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Islamic spheres of influence.[citation needed]
Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian, yet there is moremutual intelligibility with Belarusian[131] and a very closelexical distance between the two.[132]: 13 Historically, state-enforcedRussification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in theRussian Empire.[133] The linguistic oppression continued in various ways while Ukraine was a part of theSoviet Union;[134] however, the language continued to be used throughout the country, especially inwestern Ukraine.[135]
Ukraine was inhabited bypagan tribes untilByzantine rite Christianity was introduced by the turn of the first millennium. It was imagined by later writers who sought to put Kievan Rus' Christianity on the same level of primacy as Byzantine Christianity thatApostle Andrew himself visited the site where the city ofKiev would be later built.[citation needed]
However, it was only by the 10th century that the emerging state, the Kievan Rus', became influenced by theByzantine Empire. The first known conversion was by the PrincessSaint Olga, who came toConstantinople in 945 or 957. Several years later, her grandson, PrinceVladimir baptised his people in theDnieper River. This began a long history of the dominance of theEastern Orthodoxy in Ruthenia (Ukraine).[citation needed]
A 2020 survey conducted by theRazumkov Centre found that majority of Ukrainian populations was adhering to Christianity (81.9%). Of these Christians, 75.4% are Eastern Orthodox (34% of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine and 13.8% of the Moscow Patriarchate, and 27.6% are simply Orthodox); 8.2% are Greek Catholics; 7.1% are simply Christians; and a further 1.9% are Protestants and 0.4% areLatin Catholics.[139] As of 2016, 16.3% of the population claims no religious affiliation, and 1.7% adheres to other religions.[140] According to the same survey, 70% of the people of Ukraine declare themselves believers but do not belong to any church; 8.8% identifies with none of the denominations; and another 5.6% identify themselves as non-believers.[140]
Ukraine is often called the "Breadbasket of Europe", and its plentifulgrain andcereal resources such asrye andwheat play an important part in its cuisine; essential in making various kinds of bread.[147][148]Chernozem, the country's black-colored highly fertile soil, produces some of the world's most flavorful crops.[149]
Ukrainian music incorporates a diversity of external cultural influences. It also has a very strong indigenousSlavic and Christian uniqueness, the elements of which elements were used among many neighboring nations.[155][156]
Ukrainian folk oral literature, poetry and songs (such as thedumas) are among the most distinctive ethnocultural features of Ukrainians as a people. Religious music existed in Ukraine before the official adoption of Christianity, in the form of plainsongobychnyi spiv ormusica practica. Traditional Ukrainian music is easily recognised by its somewhat melancholy tone. It first became known outside of Ukraine during the 15th century as musicians from Ukraine would perform before the royal courts in Poland (later in Russia).[citation needed]
A large number of famous musicians around the world was educated or born in Ukraine, among them famous names likeDmitry Bortniansky,Sergei Prokofiev andMyroslav Skoryk. Ukraine is also the rarely acknowledged musical heartland of the formerRussian Empire, home to its first professional music academy, which opened in the mid-18th century and produced numerous early musicians and composers.[157]
Ukrainian dance refers to the traditionalfolk dances of the peoples of Ukraine. Today, Ukrainian dance is primarily represented by whatethnographers,folklorists and dance historians refer to as Ukrainian folk-stage dances: stylised representations of traditional dances and their characteristic movements that have been choreographed forconcert dance performances. This stylised art form has so permeated theculture of Ukraine that very few purely traditional forms of Ukrainian dance remain today.[citation needed]
Ukrainian dance is often described as energetic, fast-paced and entertaining, and along with traditional Easter eggs (pysanky), it is a characteristic example of Ukrainian culture recognised and appreciated throughout the world.[citation needed]
The national flag of Ukraine is a blue and yellow bicolour rectangle, with the colour fields of the same form and equal size and the colours representing a blue sky above yellow fields of wheat.[158][159][160] The flag was designed for the convention of theSupreme Ruthenian Council, meeting inLviv in October 1848. Its colours were based on the coat-of-arms of theKingdom of Ruthenia.[161]
^In the context of a Polish raid on Kholm (modernChełm), capital city of theKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, theGalician–Volhynian Chronicle notessub anno 1268 (6776): "The Poles began to raid around Kholm (...) but they did not take anything, for [the people] had fled into the city, because the Лѧхове Оукраинѧнѣ" (Liakhove Ukrainianĕ, literally "Polish Ukrainians", "Ukrainian Poles" or "border Poles") "had let them know [that they enemy was coming]".[54][55]
^Ukrainian citizens may take up employment in Poland without obtaining a work permit for a maximum period of 6 months within a year on the basis of a declaration of intention to entrust a job to a foreigner. In 2016, over 1.262 million such declarations were issued for Ukrainian nationals.[1]Archived 5 November 2021 at theWayback Machine[2]Archived 10 April 2022 at theWayback Machine
^"Ucraini in Italia". tuttitalia.it(Elaborazioni su dati ISTAT-L'Istituto nazionale di statistica).Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved14 February 2022.
^Українська діаспора в Румунії [Ukrainian diaspora in Romania] (in Ukrainian). Буковина толерантна.Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved5 November 2017.
^"Статистический ежегодник 2017". Министерство экономического развития, Государственная служба статистики Приднестровской Молдавской Республики. Archived fromthe original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved30 September 2017.
^Australian Government – Department of Immigration and Border Protection."Ukrainian Australians". Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2014. Retrieved1 October 2017.
^"Our color-all over the world". State Migration Service of Ukraine and Foundation for assistance to refugees and displaced people "Compassion". Archived fromthe original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved25 September 2017.
^Українці в Швейцарії. Botschaft der Ukraine in der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. Archived fromthe original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved5 November 2017.
^"Ukrainians in Finland". Embassy of Ukraine in the Republic of Finland. Archived fromthe original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved5 November 2017.
^UkrainiansArchived 11 April 2022 at theWayback Machine ... Ukrainians are people whose native language is Ukrainian (an objective criterion) whether or not they are nationally conscious, and all those who identify themselves as Ukrainian (a subjective criterion) whether or not they speak Ukrainian ...
^Kappeler, Andreas (2023).Ungleiche Brüder: Russen und Ukrainer vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. München: C.H.Beck oHG. p. 260.ISBN978-3-406-80042-9...., dass sich die Ukrainer in postsowjetischer Zeit zunehmend als politische Nation, als Willensnation, die mehrere ethnische und sprachliche Gruppen umfasst, verstehen. [... in the post-Soviet era, Ukrainians increasingly see themselves as a political nation, a nation by will (Willensnation,civic nation) that includes several ethnic and linguistic groups.]
^"The Ukrainian Highlanders: Hutsuls, Boikos, and Lemkos".People. Encyclopediaofukraine.com. 16 July 1990.Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved2 November 2012.The oldest recorded names used for the Ukrainians are Rusyny, Rusychi, and Rusy (from Rus').
^Wilson, Andrew. Ukrainian nationalism in the 1990s: a minority faith. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
^abLuchenko, Valentyn (11 February 2009).Походження назви "Україна" [Origin of the name "Ukraine"] (in Ukrainian). luchenko.com. Archived fromthe original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved16 March 2016.
^abcУкраїна. Русь. Назви території і народу [Ukraine. Rus'. Names of territories and nationality].Encyclopedia of Ukraine – I (in Ukrainian). Vol. 1. Litopys.org.ua. 1949.Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved16 March 2016.
^Himka, John-Paul (1993)."Ruthenians". Encyclopediaofukraine.com.Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved16 March 2016. "A historic name for Ukrainians corresponding to the Ukrainian rusyny"
^Lev, Vasyl; Vytanovych, Illia (1993)."Populism, Western Ukrainian". Encyclopediaofukraine.com.Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved16 March 2016.
^"Ukrainians". Encyclopediaofukraine.com. 16 July 1990.Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved30 October 2012. in: Roman Senkus et al. (eds.),The Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine, revised and updated content based on the five-volume Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) edited by Volodymyr Kubijovyc (vols. 1–2) and Danylo Husar Struk (vols. 3–5). Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (CIUS) (University of Alberta/University of Toronto).
^Compare:Volodymyr Kubijovyc; Danylo Husar Struk, eds. (1990)."Ukrainians".Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (CIUS) (University of Alberta/University of Toronto).Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved10 November 2009.From the 7th century AD on, proto-Ukrainian tribes are known to have inhabited Ukrainian territory: the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, and White Croatians.
^Zhukovsky, Arkadii."Varangians". Encyclopediaofukraine.com.Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved2 November 2012....Varangians assimilated rapidly with the local population.
^"Kyivan Rus'".www.encyclopediaofukraine.com. 1988.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved1 April 2023.According to some sources, the first Varangian rulers of Rus' were Askold and Dyr.
^Kushniarevich A, Utevska O (2015) "Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data"
^Kharkov, V. N.; Stepanov, V. A.; Borinskaya, S. A.; Kozhekbaeva, Zh. M.; Gusar, V. A.; Grechanina, E. Ya.; Puzyrev, V. P.; Khusnutdinova, E. K.; Yankovsky, N. K. (1 March 2004). "Gene Pool Structure of Eastern Ukrainians as Inferred from the Y-Chromosome Haplogroups".Russian Journal of Genetics.40 (3):326–331.doi:10.1023/B:RUGE.0000021635.80528.2f.S2CID25907265.
^Rosefielde, Steven. "Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union: A Reconsideration of the Demographic Consequences of Forced Industrialization, 1929–1949." Soviet Studies 35 (July 1983): 385–409
^Peter Finn,Aftermath of a Soviet FamineArchived 21 October 2014 at theWayback Machine,The Washington Post, 27 April 2008, "There are no exact figures on how many died. Modern historians place the number between 2.5 million and 3.5 million. Yushchenko and others have said at least 10 million were killed."
^Pavlenko, Aneta (2011). "Linguistic russification in the Russian Empire: peasants into Russians? / Языковая руссификация в Российской империи: стали ли крестьяне русскими?".Russian Linguistics.35 (3).Springer Nature:331–350.doi:10.1007/s11185-011-9078-7.JSTOR41486701.
^Aidarbekova, Sabina; Aider, Mohammad (April 2022). "Production of Ryazhenka, a traditional Ukrainian fermented baked milk, by using electro-activated whey as supplementing ingredient and source of lactulose".Food Bioscience.46 (101526) 101526.Elsevier.doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101526.ISSN2212-4292.
^"Ukrainian Music Elements".Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. 2001.Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved19 November 2012.
^"Ukrainian Wandering Bards: Kobzars, Bandurysts, and Lirnyks". Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. 2001.Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved15 March 2016.The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heritage.
Vasyl Balushok,"When was the Ukrainian nation born?",Zerkalo Nedeli (the Mirror Weekly), 23 April – 6 May 2005. Availablein Russian andin Ukrainian.
Dmytro Kyianskyi,"We are more "Russian" then they are: history without myths and sensationalism",Zerkalo Nedeli (the Mirror Weekly), 27 January – 2 February 2001. Availablein Russian andin Ukrainian.
Oleg Chirkov,"External migration – the main reason for the presence of a non-Ukrainian ethnic population in contemporary Ukraine".Zerkalo Nedeli (the Mirror Weekly), 26 January – 1 February 2002. Availablein Russian andin Ukrainian.
.jpg)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
.svg)
