Historically, the tasks of locallaw enforcement,public education,public health, intrastate commerce regulation, and localtransportation andinfrastructure, in addition tolocal, state, and federal elections, have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization andincorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate overstates' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.
The Constitution grants to Congress the authority toadmit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 by theThirteen Colonies, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on anequal footing with the existing states.[5] While the Constitution does not explicitly discusssecession from the Union, theUnited States Supreme Court, inTexas v. White (1869), held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally do so.[6][7]
The 13 original states came into existence in July 1776 during theAmerican Revolutionary War (1775–1783), as the successors of theThirteen Colonies, upon agreeing to theLee Resolution[8] and signing theUnited States Declaration of Independence.[9] Prior to these events eachstate had been aBritishcolony;[8] each then joined the firstUnion of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying theArticles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitution.[10][11] Also during this period, the newly independent states developed their own individualstate constitutions, among the earliest written constitutions in the world.[12] Although different in detail, these state constitutions shared features that would be important in the American constitutional order: they wererepublican in form, and separated power among three branches, most had bicameral legislatures, and contained statements, or a bill, of rights.[13] Later, from 1787 to 1790, each of the states also ratified a new federal frame of government in theConstitution of the United States.[14] In relation to the states, the U.S. Constitution elaborated concepts offederalism.[15]
Under U.S. constitutional law, the 50 individual states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.[16] The states arenot administrative divisions of the country; theTenth Amendment to the United States Constitution reserves to the states or to the people all powers of government not delegated to the federal government.
Consequently, each of the 50 states reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution and theRepublican Guarantee enforced by Congress) deemed appropriate by its people, and to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution.[17] A state, unlike the federal government, has un-enumeratedpolice power, that is, the right to generally make all necessary laws for the welfare of its people.[18] As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.
Constitutions
The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution, all of which are written constitutions. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborated than their federal counterpart. For example, before its revision in 2022, theConstitution of Alabama, contained 310,296 words, which is more than 40 times as many as theU.S. Constitution.[19] In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch frame of government: executive, legislative, and judicial (even though doing so has never been required).[4][19]
Early in American history, four state governments differentiated themselves from the others in their first constitutions by choosing to self-identify asCommonwealths rather than asstates:Virginia, in 1776;[20]Pennsylvania, in 1777;Massachusetts, in 1780; andKentucky, in 1792. Consequently, while these four are states like the other states, each is formally a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution.[21] The term,commonwealth, which refers toa state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used inVirginia during theInterregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns ofCharles I andCharles II during which parliament'sOliver Cromwell asLord Protector established arepublican government known as theCommonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title; it went unused until reintroduced in 1776.[20]
In each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as bothhead of state andhead of government. All governors are chosen by statewidedirect election. The governor may approve orveto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as recommend and work for the passage of bills, usually supported by their political party. In 44 states, governors haveline item veto power.[22] Most states have aplural executive, meaning that the governor is not the only government official in the state responsible for itsexecutive branch. In these states, executive power is distributed amongst other officials,[23] elected by the people independently of the governor—such as thelieutenant governor,attorney general,comptroller,secretary of state, and others.
Elections of officials in the United States are generally for afixed term of office. The constitutions of 19 states allow for citizens to remove and replace an elected public official before the end of their term of office through arecall election.[24] Each state follows its own procedures for recall elections, and sets its own restrictions on how often, and how soon after ageneral election, they may be held. In all states, the legislatures can remove state executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includesimpeachment (the bringing of specific charges), anda trial, wherein legislators act as a jury.[24]
The primary responsibilities of state legislatures are to enact state laws and appropriate money for the administration of public policy.[22] In all states, if the governor vetoes a bill (or a portion of one), it can still become law if the legislature overrides the veto (repasses the bill), which in most states requires atwo-thirds vote in each chamber.[22] In 49 of the 50 states the legislature consists of two chambers: a lower house (variously called the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, in all states called the Senate. The exception is theunicameralNebraska Legislature, meaning it has only a single chamber.[25] Most states have apart-time legislature (traditionally called acitizen legislature). Ten state legislatures are consideredfull-time; these bodies are more similar to the U.S. Congress than are the others.[26]
Members of each state's legislature are chosen by direct election. InBaker v. Carr (1962) andReynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (theone person, one vote standard). In practice, most states elect legislators fromsingle-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts. In this case, multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. Thevoting systems used across the nation are:first-past-the-post in single-member districts, andmultiple non-transferable vote in multi-member districts.
In 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation.[27]
State court systems exercise broad, plenary, and general jurisdiction, in contrast to the federal courts, which are courts of limited jurisdiction. The overwhelming majority of criminal and civil cases in the United States are heard in state courts. Each year, roughly 30 million new cases are filed in state courts and the total number of judges across all state courts is about 30,000—for comparison, 1 million new cases are filed each year in federal courts, which have about 1,700 judges.[28]
Most states base their legal system on Englishcommon law (with substantial statutory changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a formerFrench colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from Frenchcivil law.
Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most states, the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.
Unitarism
All states areunitary states, not federations or aggregates oflocal governments. Local governments within them are created by and exist by virtue of state law, and local governments within each state are subject to the central authority of that particular state. State governments commonly delegate some authority to local units and channel policy decisions down to them for implementation.[29] In a few states, local units of government are permitted a degree ofhome rule over various matters. The prevailing legal theory of state preeminence over local governments, referred to asDillon's Rule, holds that,
A municipal corporation possesses and can exercise the following powers and no others: First, those granted in express words; second, those necessarily implied or necessarily incident to the powers expressly granted; third, those absolutely essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation—not simply convenient but indispensable; fourth, any fair doubt as to the existence of power is resolved by the courts against the corporation—against the existence of the powers.[30]
Each state defines for itself what powers it will allow local governments. Generally, four categories of power may be given to local jurisdictions:
Structural – power to choose the form of government, charter and enact charter revisions,
Functional – power to exercise local self-government in a broad or limited manner,
Fiscal – authority to determine revenue sources, set tax rates, borrow funds and other related financial activities,
Personnel – authority to set employment rules, remuneration rates, employment conditions and collective bargaining.[31]
Relationships
Interstate
Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on anequal footing with the original states in all respects.[32] With the growth ofstates' rights advocacy during theantebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, inLessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.[33] With the consent of Congress, states may enter intointerstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights.[34]
UnderArticle IV of the Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to givefull faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of most contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Pursuant to theExtradition Clause, a state mustextradite people located there who have fled charges of "treason, felony, or other crimes" in another state if the other state so demands.[35]
The full faith and credit expectation does have exceptions, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states.[36] Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice ofcomity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to theirbasic rights, under thePrivileges and Immunities Clause.
Under Article IV, each state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as theconsent of the governed.[37] This guarantee has long been at the forefront of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the1967 Detroit riot but was not invoked.
States' rights are understood mainly with reference to theTenth Amendment. The Constitution delegates some powers to the national government, and it forbids some powers to the states. The Tenth Amendment reserves all other powers to the states, or to the people. Powers of theU.S. Congress areenumerated inArticle I, Section 8, for example, the power to declare war. Making treaties is one power forbidden to the states, being listed among other such powers inArticle I, Section 10.
Among the Article I enumerated powers of Congress is the power to regulate commerce. Since the early 20th century, the Supreme Court's interpretation of this "Commerce Clause" has, over time, greatly expanded the scope offederal power, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. TheCambridge Economic History of the United States says, "On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power."[40] In 1941, the Supreme Court inU.S. v. Darby upheld theFair Labor Standards Act of 1938, holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.[41] Then, one year later, inWickard v. Filburn, the Court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern.[42] For example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. Through such decisions, argues law professor David F. Forte, "the Court turned the commerce power into the equivalent of a general regulatory power and undid the Framers' original structure of limited and delegated powers." Subsequently, Congress invoked the Commerce Clause to expand federal criminal legislation, as well as for social reforms such as theCivil Rights Act of 1964. Only within the past couple of decades, through decisions in cases such as those inU.S. v. Lopez (1995) andU.S. v. Morrison (2000), has the Court tried to limit the Commerce Clause power of Congress.[43]
Another enumerated congressional power is itstaxing and spending power.[44] An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include theInterstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government and serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withholdfederal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass various laws.[45] An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by theNational Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause inSouth Dakota v. Dole483U.S.203 (1987).
As prescribed by Article I of the Constitution, which establishes the U.S. Congress, each state is represented in the Senate (irrespective of population size) by two senators, and each is guaranteed at least one representative in the House. Both senators and representatives are chosen indirect popular elections in the various states. (Prior to 1913, senators were elected by state legislatures.) There are presently 100 senators, who are electedat-large tostaggered terms of six years, with one-third of them being chosen every two years. Representatives are elected at large or fromsingle-member districts to terms of two years (not staggered). The size of the House—presently 435 voting members—is set byfederal statute. Seats in the House aredistributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennialcensus.[46] The borders of these districts are established by the states individually through a process calledredistricting, and within each state all districts are required to have approximately equal populations.[47]
Citizens in each state plus those in theDistrict of Columbiaindirectly elect thepresident andvice president. When castingballots inpresidential elections they are voting forpresidential electors, who then, using procedures provided in the12th amendment, elect the president and vice president.[48] There were 538 electors for the most recent presidential election in2020; the allocation of electoral votes was based on the2010 census.[49] Each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state; the District of Columbia is entitled to three electors.[50]
While the Constitution does set parameters for the election of federal officials, state law, not federal, regulates most aspects of elections in the U.S., including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state's electoral college, as well as the running of state and local elections. All elections—federal, state, and local—are administered by the individual states, and some voting rules and procedures may differ among them.[51]
Article V of the Constitution accords states a key role in the process of amending the U.S. Constitution. Amendments may be proposed either by Congress with atwo-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate, or by aconstitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the state legislatures.[52] To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either—as determined by Congress—the legislatures of three-quarters of the states orstate ratifying conventions in three-quarters of the states.[53] The vote in each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state's population or length of time in the Union.
With other countries
U.S. states are not sovereign in theWestphalian sense ininternational law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law.[54] Additionally, the 50 U.S. states do not possess international legal sovereignty, meaning that they are not recognized by other sovereign States such as, for example, France, Germany or the United Kingdom.[54] The federal government is responsible forinternational relations, but state and local government leaders do occasionally travel to other countries and form economic and cultural relationships.
U.S. states bydate of statehood: 1776–1790 1791–1796 1803–1819 1820–1837 1845–1859 1861–1876 1889–1896 1907–1912 1959The order in which the original 13 states ratified the Constitution, then the order in which the others were admitted to the Union
Article IV also grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded fromthe original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.[33] Article IV also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still hadWestern land claims (including Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia) to have aveto over whether their western counties could become states,[32] and has served this same function since, whenever aproposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.
Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 were formed from anorganized territory established and governed by Congress in accord with itsplenary power under Article IV, Section 3,Clause 2.[55] The outline for this process was established by theNorthwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.
When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass anenabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize aconstitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step toward admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution and meeting any additional congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.
In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having beensovereign states, and one was established fromunorganized territory:
Congress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance,Mormon pioneers inSalt Lake City sought to establish the state ofDeseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by theUnited States Congress. In another, leaders of theFive Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) inIndian Territory proposed to establish the state ofSequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands.[63] The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory andOklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. TheState of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognizedNorth Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately of the state of Tennessee.
Additionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them,Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to aboundary dispute with the adjoining state of Ohio. TheRepublic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years.[64] Statehood forKansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internalviolent conflicts involvinganti-slavery andpro-slavery factions. West Virginia's bid for statehood was also delayed over slavery and was settled when it agreed to adopt a gradual abolition plan.[65]
Puerto Rico, anunincorporated U.S. territory, refers to itself as the "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in the English version of itsconstitution, and as "Estado Libre Asociado" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version. As with all U.S. territories, its residents do not have full representation in the United States Congress. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. House of Representatives in the form of aResident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in theCommittee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, but no voting rights otherwise.[70]
A non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank.[71][72]
Anotherstatus referendum was held on June 11, 2017, wherein 97% percent of voters chose statehood. Turnout was low, as only 23% of voters went to the polls, with advocates of both continued territorial status and independence urging voters to boycott it.[74]
On June 27, 2018, the H.R. 6246 Act was introduced on theU.S. House with the purpose of responding to, and comply with, the democratic will of the United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico as expressed in the plebiscites held on November 6, 2012, and June 11, 2017, by setting forth the terms for the admission of the territory of Puerto Rico as a state of the Union.[75] The act has 37 original cosponsors between Republicans and Democrats in the U.S. House of Representatives.[76]
On November 3, 2020, Puerto Rico held anotherreferendum. In the non-binding referendum, Puerto Ricans voted in favor of becoming a state. They also voted for a pro-statehoodgovernor,Pedro Pierluisi.[77]
The intention of theFounding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as theseat of government. As it is not a state, the district does not have representation in the Senate and has anon-voting delegate in the House; neither does it have a sovereign elected government. Additionally, beforeratification of the23rd Amendment in 1961, district citizens did not get theright to vote in presidential elections.
The strong majority of residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction – either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining underfederal jurisdiction. In November 2016, Washington, D.C. residents voted in astatehood referendum in which 86% of voters supported statehood for Washington, D.C.[78] For statehood to be achieved, it must be approved by Congress.[79]
The Constitution speaks of "union" several times, but does not explicitly discuss the issue of whether a state cansecede from the Union. Its predecessor, theArticles of Confederation, stated that the union of the United States "shall beperpetual." The question of whether or not individual states held the unilateral right to secession was a passionately debated feature of the nations' political discourse from early in its history and remained a difficult and divisive topic until theAmerican Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, 11 southern states each declared secession from the United States and joined to form theConfederate States of America (CSA). Following the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in 1865, those states were brought back into the Union during the ensuingReconstruction era. The federal government never recognized the sovereignty of the CSA, nor the validity of theordinances of secession adopted by the seceding states.[6][80]
Following the war, the United States Supreme Court, inTexas v. White (1869), held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the "perpetual" union language of the Articles of Confederation, and its succeedingPreamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution intends to "form a more perfect union", and speaks of the people of the United States a single body politic who are the authors of the more perfect union ("We the people"), the Supreme Court found that states did not have a right to secede. The court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring "through revolution, or through consent of the States", essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.[6][80]
Of the remaining names, 22 are from European languages. Seven are fromLatin (mainlyLatinized forms of English names) and the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states arenamed after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after aPresident of the United States. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names fromnames used for Native peoples retain the final letter "s" in the indigenous name.
The borders of the 13 original states were largely determined bycolonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such asrivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America,New France,New Spain includingSpanish Florida, andRussian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.
Once established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original statesceded land, over a several-year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory,Southwest Territory, andMississippi Territory. In 1791, Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create theDistrict of Columbia (Virginia's portion wasreturned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.
There have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes.[56] Occasionally, either Congress or the U.S. Supreme Court has had to settle state border disputes. One notable example is the caseNew Jersey v. New York, in whichNew Jersey won roughly 90% ofEllis Island fromNew York in 1998.[81]
Once aterritory is admitted by Congress as a state of the Union, the state must consent to any changes pertaining to the jurisdiction of that state and Congress.[82] The only potential violation of this occurred when the legislature ofVirginia declared thesecession of Virginia from the United States at the start of theAmerican Civil War and a newly formed alternative Virginia legislature, recognized by the federal government, consented to haveWest Virginia secede from Virginia.
States may be grouped in regions; there are many variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions.[83] The Census Bureau region definition (Northeast,Midwest,South, andWest) is "widely used ... for data collection and analysis,"[84] and is the most commonly used classification system.[85][86][87] Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines.
^ab"Delegate Discussions: The Lee Resolution(s)".The Declaration Resources Project. Course of Human Events. Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. June 7, 2018. RetrievedSeptember 11, 2019.
^abSalmon, Emily J.; Campbell, Edward D. C. Jr., eds. (1994).The Hornbook of Virginia History (4th ed.). Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Office of Graphic Communications. p. 88.ISBN978-0-88490-177-8.Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. RetrievedMarch 10, 2016.
^Regalado, Daniel M."The Texas Plural Executive".Texas Government (Chapter 4). Lumen Learning.Archived from the original on March 14, 2018. RetrievedMarch 12, 2018.
^abForte, David F."Essays on Article IV: New States Clause".The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. RetrievedJanuary 12, 2016.
^Levitt, Justin."Who draws the lines".All About Redistricting. Los Angeles, California: University of Loyola Law School.Archived from the original on June 17, 2018. RetrievedJune 17, 2018.
^Fried, Charles."Essays on Amendment XII: Electoral College".Heritage Guide to the Constitution. Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on April 21, 2012. RetrievedOctober 30, 2018.
^abcRiccards, Michael P. (Summer 1997). "Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia".Presidential Studies Quarterly.27 (3).
^Holt, Michael F. (200).The fate of their country: politicians, slavery extension, and the coming of the Civil War. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 15.ISBN978-0-8090-4439-9.
^"The 14th State".Vermont History Explorer. Vermont Historical Society.Archived from the original on December 21, 2015. RetrievedApril 8, 2016.
^ab"Texas v. White". Cornell Law School, Ithaca, New York: Legal Information Institute.Archived from the original on March 13, 2018. RetrievedMarch 14, 2018.
^"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy,Energy Information Administration.
^"Perhaps the most widely used regional classification system is one developed by the U.S. Census Bureau." Dale M. Lewison,Retailing,Prentice Hall (1997): p. 384.ISBN978-0-13-461427-4
^"(M)ost demographic and food consumption data are presented in this four-region format." Pamela Goyan Kittler, Kathryn P. Sucher (2008).Food and Culture (5th ed.),Cengage Learning. p. 475.ISBN9780495115410.
Further reading
Stein, Mark,How the States Got Their Shapes, New York : Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2008.ISBN978-0-06-143138-8
