The name Tuva goes back as early as the publication ofThe Secret History of the Mongols. The Tuva (as they refer to themselves) have historically been referred to as Soyons, Soyots or Uriankhais.[4]
Tuvan (also spelled Tyvan) is linguistically classified as a Sayan Turkic language. Its closest relative is the moribundTofa.
Tuvan, as spoken in Tuva, is principally divided into four dialect groups; Western, Central, Northeastern, Southeastern.
Central: forms the basis of the literary language and includes Ovyur and Bii-Khem subdialects. The geographical centrality of this dialect meant it was similar to the language spoken by most Tuvans, whether or not exactly the same.[5]
Western: can be found spoken near the upper course of theKhemchik. It is influenced by the Altai language.
Northeastern, also known as theTodzhi dialect, is spoken near the upper course of theGreat Yenisey. The speakers of this dialect utilize nasalization. It contains a large vocabulary related to hunting and reindeer breeding not found in the other dialects.
Other dialects include those spoken by theDzungar, theTsengel and theDukha Tuvans, but currently these uncommon dialects are not comprehensively documented. Different dialects of the language exist across the geographic region in which Tuvan is spoken.K. David Harrison, who completed his dissertation on the Tuvan language in 2001, argues that the divergence of these dialects relates to the nomadic nature of the Tuvan nation.[5]
One subset is the Jungar Tuvan language, originating in theAltai Mountains in the western region of Mongolia. There is no accurate number of Jungar-Tuvan speakers because most currently reside in China, and the Chinese include Tuvan speakers as Mongolians in their census.[4]
Vowels in Tuvan exist in three varieties: long, short, and short with lowpitch. Tuvan long vowels have a duration that is at least (and often more than) twice as long as that of short vowels. Contrastive low pitch may occur on short vowels, and when it does, it causes them to increase in duration by at least a half. When using low pitch, Tuvan speakers employ a pitch that is at the very low end of their modal voice pitch. For some speakers, it is even lower and using what is phonetically known ascreaky voice (e.g.[a̰t] 'horse'). When a vowel in a monosyllabic word has low pitch, speakers apply low pitch only to the first half of that vowel (e.g.[àt] 'horse').[6] That is followed by a noticeable pitch rise, as the speaker returns to modal pitch in the second half of the vowel (e.g.[ǎt] 'horse').
The acoustic impression is similar to that of a rising tone like the risingpitch contour of theMandarin second tone, but the Tuvan pitch begins much lower. However, Tuvan is considered apitch accent language with contrastive low pitch instead of atonal language. When the low pitch vowel occurs in a multisyllabic word, there is no risingpitch contour or lengthening effect:[àt̬ɤ] 'his/her/its horse'. Such low pitch vowels were previously referred to in the literature as eitherkargyraa orpharyngealized vowels. Phonetic studies have demonstrated that the defining characteristic of such vowels is low pitch. (See Harrison 2001 for a phonetic and acoustic study of Tuvan low pitch vowels.)
In her PhD thesis, "Long Vowels in Mongolic Loanwords in Tuvan", Baiarma Khabtagaeva states that the history of long vowels is ambiguous. While the long vowels may originate from Mongolic languages, they could also be of Tuvan origin. In most Mongolic languages, the quality of the long vowel changes depending on the quality of the second vowel in the conjunction. The only exception to this rule is if the conjunction is labial. The ancient Tuvan languages, in contrast, depended upon the first vowel rather than the second to determine the long vowels.[7]
Khabtagaeva divided the transformation of these loanwords into two periods: the early layer and the late layer. The words in the early layer are words in which the Mongolic preserved the conjunction, the VCV conjunction was preserved but the long vowel still developed when it entered the Tuvan language, or the stress is on the last syllable and a long vowel in the loanword replaced a short vowel in the original word. The late layer includes loanwords in which the long vowel does not change when the word entered Tuvan.[7]
Vowels may also benasalized in the environment of nasal consonants, but nasalization is non-contrastive. Most Tuvan vowels in word-initial syllables have a low pitch and do not contrast significantly with short and long vowels.[5]
Tuvan has two systems ofvowel harmony that strictly govern the distribution of vowels within words and suffixes. Backness harmony, or what is sometimes called 'palatal' harmony, requires all vowels within a word to be either back or front. Rounding harmony, or what is sometimes called 'labial' harmony, requires a vowel to be rounded if it is a high vowel and appears in a syllable immediately following a rounded vowel. Low rounded vowels[ø][o] are restricted to the first syllable of a word, and a vowel in a non-initial syllable may be rounded only if it meets the conditions of rounding harmony (it must both be a high vowel[y][u] and be preceded by a rounded vowel). See Harrison (2001) for a detailed description of Tuvan vowel harmony systems.[5]
The current Tuvan alphabet is a modified version of theRussian alphabet, with three additional letters: Ңң (Latin "ng" orInternational Phonetic Alphabet[ŋ]), Өө (Latin "ö",[ø]), Үү (Latin "ü", IPA[y]). The sequence of the alphabet follows Russian, but with Ң located after Russian Н, Ө after О, and Ү after У.
А а
Б б
В в
Г г
Д д
Е е
Ё ё
Ж ж
З з
И и
Й й
К к
Л л
М м
Н н
Ң ң
О о
Ө ө
П п
Р р
С с
Т т
У у
Ү ү
Ф ф
Х х
Ц ц
Ч ч
Ш ш
Щ щ
Ъ ъ
Ы ы
Ь ь
Э э
Ю ю
Я я
The letters Е and Э are used in a special way. Э is used for the short/e/ sound at the beginning of words while Е is used for the same sound in the middle and at the end of words. Е is used at the beginning of words, mostly of Russian origin, to reflect the standard Russian pronunciation of that letter,/je/. Additionally, ЭЭ is used in the middle and at the end of words for the long/e/ sound.
The letter ъ is used to indicate pitch accent, as in эътèt 'meat'.
From the late 18th century, when Tuva became part of the Qing empire, until the 1930s, all official documentation was kept in Mongolian using the traditionalMongolian script.[8] By the late 1920s less than 1.5% of the total Tuvan population was literate in the traditionalMongolian script. Mongolian literacy was mainly possessed by the feudal nobility and officials. The absolute majority of Tuvans (with the exception of residents of some areas of the south-eastern part of Tuva, where Tuvan-Mongolian bilingualism has been preserved to this day) did not know the Mongolian language, and had long spoken only their native language.[9]
In 1926, the government of the Tuvan People's Republic asked Soviet scientists to develop a native Tuvan script. The first draft of a Tuvan alphabet based on Cyrillic was compiled by Roman Buzykaev (1875–1939) and B. Bryukhanov (Sotpa) in 1927. This alphabet contained the letters Аа, Бб, Вв, Гг, Дд, Ёё, Жж, Ӝӝ, Зз, Ии, Йй, Кк, Лл, Мм, Нн, Ҥҥ, Оо, Ӧӧ, Пп, Рр, Сс, Тт, Уу, Ӱӱ, Хх, Чч, Шш, Ыы. The first Tuvan primer was published using this alphabet, but this project was not developed further.
Example of Latin-based alphabet on the Tuvan People's Republic coat of arms. It says "PYGY TELEGEJNIꞐ PROLETARLARЬ POLGAŞ TARLATKAN ARATTARЬ KATTЬƵЬꞐAR".
The Latin-based alphabet for Tuvan was devised in 1930 by a Tuvan Buddhist monk, MongushLopsang-Chinmit (a.k.a. Lubsan Zhigmed). This project was proposed based on the German alphabet, albeit with a modified letter order. In this proposed system, all vowels were placed first (10 letters), followed by consonants (18 letters). This order is characteristic of the classical Mongolian script. Moreover, the pronunciation of several letters underwent significant alteration.[10][11]
A few books and newspapers, including primers intended to teach adults to read, were printed using this writing system. Lopsang-Chinmit was later executed in Stalinist purges on 31 December 1941.[12]
In the USSR, Aleksandr Palmbach,Yevgeny Polivanov, andNicholas Poppe were engaged in the development of the Tuvan Latinized alphabet. These researchers utilized the so-calledNew Turkic Alphabet as a foundation for their work.New Turkic Alphabet was designed with the intention of facilitating unification of writing systems among all Turkic peoples. In early 1930, the Tuvan alphabet was finalized and officially introduced on June 28, 1930, by a decree of the TPR government. The approved Tuvan alphabet was as follows:
A a
B ʙ
C c
D d
E e
F f
G g
Ƣ ƣ
H h
I i
J j
Ɉ ɉ
K k
L l
M m
N n
Ꞑ ꞑ
O o
Ɵ ɵ
P p
R r
S s
Ş ş
T t
U u
V v
X x
Y y
Z z
Ƶ ƶ
Ь ь
The letter Ɉ ɉ was excluded from the alphabet in 1931.
All the world's workers and oppressed peoples, unite!
By September 1943, this Latin-based alphabet was replaced by a Cyrillic-based one, which is still in use to the present day. In the post-Soviet era, Tuvan and other scholars have taken a renewed interest in the history of Tuvan letters.
For bibliographic purposes, transliteration of Tuvan generally follows the guidelines described in the ALA-LC Romanization tables for non-Slavic languages in Cyrillic script.[13] Linguistic descriptions often employ theIPA orTurcological standards for transliteration.[14]
Tuvan builds morphologically complex words by adding suffixes. For example,тевеteve is 'camel',тевелерteveler is 'camels',тевелеримtevelerim is 'my camels',тевелеримденtevelerimden is 'from my camels'.
Tuvan marksnouns with sixcases: genitive, accusative, dative, ablative, locative, and allative. The suffixes below are in front vowels, however, except-Je the suffixes follow vowel harmony rules. Each case suffix has a rich variety of uses and meanings, of which only the most basic ones are shown here.
Verbs in Tuvan take a number of endings to marktense,mood, andaspect.Auxiliary verbs are also used to modify the verb. For a detailed scholarly study of auxiliary verbs in Tuvan and related languages, see Anderson 2004.
Tuvan vocabulary is mostly Turkic in origin but marked by a large number of Mongolianloanwords. The language has also borrowed several Mongolian suffixes. In addition, there existKetic andSamoyedic substrata.[citation needed] A Tuvan talking dictionary is produced by theLiving Tongues Institute.[16]
In contrast with most Turkic languages, which have many Arabic and Persian loanwords that even cover some basic concepts, these loanwords are very few, if any, in Tuvan, as Tuvans never adopted Islam like most Turkic peoples.
Tuvans inChina, who live mostly inXinjiang Autonomous Region, are included under theMongol nationality.[17] Some Tuvans reportedly live atKanas Lake in the northwestern part of Xinjiang, where they are not officially recognized, and are counted as a part of the localOirat Mongol community that is counted under the general PRC official ethnic label of "Mongol". Oirat and Tuvan children attend schools in which they useChakhar Mongolian[18] andMandarinStandard Chinese, native languages of neither group.
^Anderson, Greg; Harrison, K. David (2002).A Grammar of Tuvan. Gaithersburg, MD: Scientific Consulting Services International. pp. 3–5.ISBN9781584900450.
^abKhabtagaeva, Baiarma (2004). "Long Vowels in Mongolic Loanwords in Tuvan".Turkic Languages.8:191–197.
^For an image of the alphabet, see articleДоржу, Зоя; Монгуш, Игорь (2023)."ТРАГИЧЕСКАЯ СУДЬБА УЧЕНОГО ЛАМЫ ЛОПСАН-ЧИНМИТА".Социально-экономический и гуманитарный журнал Красноярского ГАУ (4): 141. Retrieved6 October 2024., Figure 1
Mänchen-Helfen, Otto (1992) [1931].Journey to Tuva. Translated by Alan Leighton. Los Angeles: Ethnographic Press University of Southern California.ISBN978-1-878986-04-7.
Mongush, M. V. (1996). "Tuvans of Mongolia and China".International Journal of Central Asian Studies.1:225–243.
Todoriki, Masahiko (等々力 政彦) (2011).最古の可能性のあるトゥバ語語彙について [On the earliest possible Tuvan vocabulary].Bulletin of the Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia (Thesis). Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia, The University of Tokyo. pp. 238–220.hdl:2261/43632.ISSN0563-8089.
Anderson, Gregory D. S. (2004).Auxiliary Verb Constructions in Altai-Sayan Turkic. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.ISBN3-447-04636-8.
Anderson, Gregory D. S.; Harrison, K. David (1999).Tyvan. Languages of the World/Materials 257. Lincom Europa.ISBN978-3-89586-529-9.
[1]Harrison, K. David (2005). "A Tuvan Hero Tale, with Commentary, Morphemic Analysis, and Translation".Journal of the American Oriental Society.125:1–30.
Krueger, John R. (1977). Krueger, John R. (ed.).Tuvan Manual. Uralic and Altaic Series Volume 126. Editor Emeritus: Thomas A. Sebeok. Indiana University Publications.ISBN978-0-87750-214-2.
Mawkanuli, Talant. 1999. "The phonology and morphology of Jungar Tuva", Indiana University PhD dissertation.
Taube, Erika. (1994).Skazki i predaniia altaiskikh tuvintsev. Moskva : Vostochnaia literatura.ISBN5-02-017236-7
Oelschlägel, Anett C. (2013).Der Taigageist. Berichte und Geschichten von Menschen und Geistern aus Tuwa. Zeitgenössische Sagen und andere Folkloretexte / Дух-хозяин тайги –Современные предания и другие фольклорные материалы из Тувы / Тайга ээзи – Болган таварылгалар болгаш Тывадан чыгдынган аас чогаалының өске-даа материалдары. [The Taiga Spirit. Reports and Stories about People and Spirits from Tuva. Contemporary Legends and other Folklore-Texts.] Marburg: tectum-Verlag.ISBN978-3-8288-3134-6
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