His endowments and restorations of cults were recorded on theRestoration Stela. The cult of the godAmun atThebes was restored to prominence, and the royal couple changed their names to "Tutankhamun" and "Ankhesenamun", replacing the -atensuffix. He also moved the royal court from Akhenaten's capital,Amarna, back toMemphis almost immediately on his accession to the kingship. He reestablished diplomatic relations with theMitanni and carried out military campaigns inNubia and the Near East. Tutankhamun was one of only a few kings known to beworshipped as a deity during their lifetime. He likely began construction of a royal tomb in theValley of the Kings and an accompanying mortuary temple, but both were unfinished at the time of his death.
Tutankhamun died unexpectedly aged about 18; his health and the cause of his death have been the subject of much debate. In 2012, it was suggested he died from a combination ofmalaria and a leg fracture. Since his royal tomb was incomplete, he was instead buried in a small non-royal tomb adapted for the purpose. He was succeeded by his vizierAy, who was probably an old man when he became king, and had a short reign. Ay was succeeded byHoremheb, who had been thecommander-in-chief of Tutankhamun's armed forces. Under Horemheb, the restoration of the traditional ancient Egyptian religion was completed; Ay and Tutankhamun's constructions were usurped, and earlierAmarna Period rulers were erased.
In modern times, Tutankhamun became famous as a result of the 1922discovery ofhis tomb (KV62) by a team led by the British EgyptologistHoward Carter and sponsored by the British aristocratGeorge Herbert. Although it had clearly been raided and robbed in ancient times, it retained much of its original contents, including theking's undisturbed mummy. The discovery received worldwide press coverage; with over 5,000 artifacts, it gave rise to renewed public interest inancient Egypt, for whichTutankhamun's mask, preserved at theEgyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. Before it was relocated to theGrand Egyptian Museum in 2025,[8] some of his treasures have traveled worldwide, with unprecedented response; the Egyptian government allowed tours of the tomb beginning in 1961. The deaths of some individuals who were involved in the excavation have been popularly attributed to the "curse of the pharaohs" due to the similarity of their circumstances. Since the discovery of his tomb, he has been referred tocolloquially as "King Tut".[9]
His parentage is debated as they are not attested in surviving inscriptions. He was certainly a prince, as a fragmentary inscription fromHermopolis refers to "Tutankhuaten" as a "king's son".[13] He is generally thought to have been the son ofAkhenaten[13] or his successorSmenkhkare.[14] Inscriptions from Tutankhamun's reign treat him as a son of Akhenaten's father,Amenhotep III, but that is only possible if Akhenaten's 17-year reign included a long co-regency with his father,[15] a possibility that many Egyptologists once supported but is now being abandoned.[16] His mother has been variously suggested to be Akhenaten's chief wifeNefertiti,[17] Amenhotep III's daughterBeketaten,[18] or Akhenaten's daughtersMeritaten[19][d] orMeketaten.[20][e] Tutankhamun waswet nursed by a woman namedMaia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.[22][23]
DNA testing identified his father as the mummy from tombKV55, thought to beAkhenaten, but due to the developmental condition of the mummy's skeleton, most scholars estimate the age to be around twenty, thus effectively ruling out the possibility of Akhenaten; other scholars believe he was Smenkhkare.[24] His mother as "The Younger Lady", an anonymous mummy cached in tombKV35. His parents were full siblings, both being children of Amenhotep III and his chief wifeTiye.[25][f] The identity of The Younger Lady is unknown, but she cannot be Nefertiti, as she was not known to be a sister of Akhenaten.[28] However, researchers such asMarc Gabolde andAidan Dodson claim that Nefertiti was indeed Tutankhamun's mother. In this interpretation of the DNA results, the genetic closeness is not due to a brother-sister pairing but the result of three generations offirst-cousin marriage, making Nefertiti a first cousin of Akhenaten.[29] The validity and reliability of the genetic data from mummified remains have been questioned due to possible degradation due to decay.[30] Today, scholars consider the mummy from tomb KV55 not to be Akhenaten, but rather Smenkhkare. The Younger Lady is more likely not any of Akhenaten's known wives, but one of Tiye's younger daughters, perhaps Nebetah or Beketaten (or possibly the two were the same person, who changed her name at the beginning of Akhenaten's reign).[31]
When Tutankhaten became king, he marriedAnkhesenpaaten, one of Akhenaten's daughters, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun.[32] He fatheredtwo daughters who died at or soon after birth and were buried with him in his tomb.[25]Computed tomography studies published in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.[33] DNA testing has suggested the anonymous mummyKV21A is their mother, but the data is not statistically significant enough to allow her to be securely identified as his only known wife, Ankhesenamun.[25] Tutankhamun's death marked the end of the royal bloodline of the Eighteenth Dynasty.[34]
Tutankhamun becamepharaoh between eight and nine years of age[35] following the short reigns of Akhenaten's successors Smenkhkare andNeferneferuaten. It is uncertain whether Smenkhkare's reign outlasted Akhenaten's; the female ruler Neferneferuaten is now thought to have either been co-regent shortly before Akhenaten's death and to have had a sole reign of 2 or 3 years before the accession of Tutankhamun, which means that she was Tutankhamun's predecessor according to Athena van der Perre and Nozumu Kawai.[36][37].[38][39] On acceding to the throne, Tutankhamun took thethrone name Nebkheperure.[40] He reigned for about nine years.[41]
During Tutankhamun's reign, the position ofVizier was split betweenUpper andLower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt wasUsermontu. Another figure named Pentju was also vizier, but it is unclear which lands. It is not entirely known if Ay, Tutankhamun's successor, actually held this position. A gold foil fragment from KV58 seems to indicate, but not certainly, that Ay was referred to as a Priest ofMaat along with an epithet of "vizier, doer of maat." The epithet does not fit the usual description used by the regular vizier but might indicate an informal title. It might be that Ay used the title of vizier in an unprecedented manner.[42]
An Egyptian priest namedManetho wrote a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt where he refers to a king named Orus, who ruled for 36 years and had a daughter named Acencheres, who reigned for twelve years, and her brother Rathotis, who ruled for only nine years.[43][44] The Amarna rulers are central in the list, but which name corresponds with which historic figure is not agreed upon by researchers. Orus and Acencheres have been identified with Horemheb and Akhenaten, and Rathotis with Tutankhamun. The names are also associated withSmenkhkare,Amenhotep III, Ay, and the others in differing order.[45]
For the pharaoh, who held divine office, to be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. Theancient Egyptian titulary also served to demonstrate one's qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries, beginning with theHorus name.[g][46][47] Tutankhamun's[h] originalnomen,Tutankhaten,[48] did not have aNebty name[i] or aGold Falcon name[j] associated with it[10] as nothing has been found with the full five-name protocol.[k]
At the beginning of Tutankhaten's reign, the royal court was still located at Amarna, and evidence from his tomb shows that the Aten was still acknowledged.[49] But several pieces of evidence suggest that his court was trying to reconcile Atenism with the traditional religion,[50][51][52] and activity at Amarna decreased during the first four years of his reign.[53] These years saw dramatic reversals of Akhenaten's policies, which, given the king's young age, must have been instigated by his advisors.[54]
In his thirdregnal year, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the godAmun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. Tutankhamun enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults, initiated a restoration process for old monuments that were damaged during theAmarna Period, and reburied his father's remains in theValley of the Kings. It has been argued that it was in fact Tutankhamun himself, and not his successors, who began reversing Akhenaten's religious changes on a large scale.[55]
Around this time, the royal court abandoned Amarna.[56] Memphis became the main seat of royal administration,[56] continuing a trend that dated back to Akhenaten's predecessors, toward administering the country from that central location rather than the more outlying site of Thebes.[57] The capital was moved back toThebes and the city ofAkhetaten was abandoned.[58] With Amun restored as Egypt's preeminent deity, Thebes once again became its greatest center of religious activity.[56]
Tutankhamun's treasurer,Maya, was instrumental in executing Tutankhamun's regal orders of the restoration program. In his autobiography, he described himself as "one who carried out the plans of the king of my time and one who did not neglect what he had commanded to make splendid the temples, in fashioning the images of the gods".[59]
This countermand rendered Tutankhamun's reign one of the greatest restoration periods in ancient Egyptian history.[55] The action established his legacy as such. Concurrently, Tutankhamun's tomb door describes him as he "who spent his life fashioning images of the gods".[60][61][62]
In the third year of Tutankhaten's reign, his name was changed to "Tutankhamun", and that of his queen to "Ankhesenamun".[63][64] TheRestoration Stela, dated to Year 4 of Tutankhamun's reign, characterizes the Amarna Period as a time ofdisaster, saying:
"Temples and the estates of the gods and goddesses fromElephantine to the marshes of theDelta had fallen into ruin… If you asked a god for advice, he would not attend; and if one spoke to a goddess likewise she would not attend."[65]
The stela proclaims the rebuilding of the traditional cults;[66] priests and other members of temple staff were restored to their former positions.[67] The Restoration Stela was later usurped by Horemheb.[68]
As part of the restoration of the traditional cults, the king initiated building projects, in particular atKarnak in Thebes, where he laid out thesphinx avenue leading to the temple ofMut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king.[69] At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III.[70] Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun andPtah. He commissioned new statues of the deities from the best metals and stone and had new processionalbarques made of the finestcedar from Lebanon and had them embellished with gold and silver.[71]
A building called the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-Beloved-of-Amun-Who-Puts-Thebes-in-Order, which may be identical to a building called Temple-of-Nebkheperre-in-Thebes, a possible mortuary temple, used recycledtalatat from Akhenaten's east Karnak Aten temples, indicating that the dismantling of these temples was already underway.[72] Many of Tutankhamun's construction projects were uncompleted at the time of his death and were completed by or usurped by his successors, especially Horemheb. The Sphinx Avenue was completed by his successor, Ay, and the whole was usurped by Horemheb. Pieces of the Temple of Nebkheperure in Thebes were recycled into Horemheb's own building projects.
In ancient Egypt, pharaohs were venerated after their deaths throughmortuary cults and associated temples asdeities. This form ofapotheosis was typically reserved for deceased pharaohs, but Tutankhamun was one of the few pharaohs who was worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.[73] Temples of his cult were built as far away as inKawa andFaras inNubia. The title of the sister of theViceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[74]
Egyptologist Lanny Bell described the meaning of acriosphinx imagery at Kawa as a representation of the deified form of Tutankhamun asAmun-Re:
In the context of the extensive evidence available on the assimilation of the king to Amun-Re, especially in Nubia, Tutankhamun's adoration of himself as a form of this god at Kawa is hardly as outlandish as might at first have seemed. In this he was following the precedent ofAmenhotep III;Ramesses II merely displayed the symbolism of his predecessors on an unparalleled scale.[77]
Tutankhamun patterned his cult parallel to Amenhotep III, except emphasizing Amun instead of Aten. Then, Ramesses II would amplify this cult structure in the design of his own cult.
Give praises theka ofAmun, lord of Karnak homage to Amun, by whom swear the Two Lands and ... to the royal ka of Tutankhamun: that they may give a happy lifetime and a body, joyful, every day, to the ka of the royal son of Kush, the overseer of the countries of the south, Huy
The hymn clearly regards Tutankhamun with equivalent divinity as the godAmun.[78] Lanny Bell also described artwork accompanying the Stela of Huy, stating that Huy is shown standing adoring three deities: Amun-Re the lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, a ram-headed Amun, and the royal ka of Tutankhamun.[79] Hence, the artwork of the stela also clearly juxtaposes Tutankhamun with deities.
Military campaigns
Tutankhamun charging enemies, 18th dynasty
The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with theMitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb.[80] Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles withNubians andAsiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes, both victories for Egypt.[81] Also, as far as is known, Tutankhamun's military reign was undefeated, and is one of several other undefeated reigns in ancient Egypt's history.
Battle participation
One of Tutankhamun'sshields, depicting him threatening lions, symbolizing Egypt's enemies
The extent to which Tutankhamun participated in battles is an open question and has yet to reach consensus among researchers. On one hand, his tomb contained extensive military armament, such as bows,khopesh swords, daggers, wristguards, maces, shields, and a club, indicating he had extensive weaponry training. Many such items were inscribed with his name, and clearly in used condition.[55] Various imagery, in ancient Egypt's classic battlenarrative art genre, does depict Tutankhamun as directly participatory in warfare, such as the graphic battle depictions on the painted treasure chest in his tomb, and a gold leaf picture of him during chariot archery against enemies. Additional figurativemilitary art depicts him dominating enemies, such as imagery of him as asphinx trampling foes. Other personalized artifacts, such as the Nine Bowsfootstool,walking sticks, andsandals depicting enemies, suggest that he was personally involved in Egypt's international conflict.[82] EgyptologistBob Brier has argued leaning towards Tutankhamun being an actively participating warrior in his later years.[83]
On the other hand, given Tutankhamun's youth and hypothesized physical disabilities, like a speculated cane handicap, some historians are skeptical that he participated in these battles.[84] Yet some experts, such as Biomedical Egyptologist Sofia Aziz and other researchers, have taken the position that the speculations of Tutankhamun's physical frailty are overestimated, arguing that mummy damage has led to misdiagnosis. Instead, they argue that the more rigorous, scientific view is that he was physically active and perhaps militarily participatory.[85] EgyptologistCharlotte Booth states that Tutankhamun participated in at least two battles (one Nubian battle, and one Asiatic battle), nevertheless noting that other researchers suggest that he may have only accompanied the army to the battlefield formoral support, as opposed to actively participating.[86]
Genealogy
A genetic study, published in 2020, revealed Tutankhamun had the haplogroupsYDNAR1b, which originated in western Asia and which today makes up 50–60% of the genetic pool of modern Europeans, andmtDNAK, which originated in the Near East. He shares this Y-haplogroup with his father, the KV55 mummy (Akhenaten), and grandfather, Amenhotep III (and his entire male ancestral line), and his mtDNA haplogroup with his mother, The Younger Lady, his grandmother,Tiye, and his great-grandmother,Thuya (and his entire female ancestral line). The profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete, and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data.[87][88]
In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analysed 8Short Tandem loci (STR) data originally published by Hawass et al. in studies from 2010 and 2012. The first of these studies had investigated familial relationships among 11 royal mummies of the New Kingdom, which included Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III, as well as potential inherited disorders and infectious diseases.[89] The second of these studies had investigated the Y-haplogroups and genetic kinship of Ramesses III and an unknown man buried along with him in the royal cache at Deir el Bahari.[90] Keita analysed the STR data from these studies using an algorithm that only has three choices: Eurasians, sub-Saharan Africans, and East Asians. Using these three options, Keita concluded that the majority of the samples had a population "affinity with 'sub-Saharan' Africans in one affinity analysis". However, Keita cautioned that this does not mean that the royal mummies "lacked other affiliations", which he argued had been obscured in typological thinking. Keita further added that different "data and algorithms might give different results", reflecting the complexity of biological heritage and the associated interpretation.[91]
In 2025, biochemist Jean-Philippe Gourdine reviewed genetic data on the Ancient Egyptian populations in the international scholarly publication,General History of Africa Volume IX. Expanding on a previous STR analysis co-performed with Keita, on theAmarna royal mummies which included Tutankhamun, Gourdine stated the analysis had found “that they had strong affinities with current sub-Saharan populations: 41 per cent to 93.9 per cent for sub-Saharan Africa, compared to 4.6 per cent to 41 per cent for Eurasia and 0.3 per cent to 16 per cent for Asia (Gourdine, 2018).” He also referenced comparable analysis conducted by DNA Tribes company, which specialized in genetic genealogy and had large datasets, with the latter having identified strong affinities between the Amarna royal mummies and Sub-Saharan African populations.[92]
Health
A painted, wooden figure of Tutankhamun suggested to be a mannequin for clothing
Details about Tutankhamun's health and early death are heavily debated, and there has been extensive investigation into various hypothesized medicaldiagnoses, especially about his death. The majority of the diagnoses stem from research conducted onTutankhamun's mummy, viaCT scans andgenetic testing, such as the2005 CT scans of his mummy. Out of the many hypothesized medical conditions of Tutankhamun, two of them have been confirmed to have afflicted him during his lifetime, namely, amalarial infection and aleg fracture. Variouspodiatric diagnoses have also been suggested. In particular, a leftclubfoot diagnosis has been a subject of much debate in conjunction with debate about the purpose of the numerouswalking sticks discovered inTutankhamun's tomb. Furthermore, upon the results of later research, some of the medical diagnoses suggested have been dismissed as confirmedmisdiagnoses.
In addition to investigations of his medical health, there has also been an investigation of hisdental health. CT investigations of Tutankhamun'sskull revealed an excellent condition of his dentition in comparison to other ancient Egyptian mummies. He had large frontincisors and anoverbite characteristic of theThutmosid royal line to which he belonged.[93]
Malaria
Malaria wasendemic in ancient Egypt, as theNile Delta provided ideal ecological conditions for robust reproduction of themosquitos carrying theplasmodium falciparum parasite responsible for causing human malarial infections.[94] A 2023meta-analysis study found that 22% ofancient Egyptian mummies tested positive for malaria.[95] Genetic testing on Tutankhamun for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific forplasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in Tutankhamun's mummy.[84] The team discoveredDNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. It has been speculated that his malaria infections may have contributed to a fatal immune response in the body or triggeredcirculatory shock.[96]
Leg fracture
The 2005 CT scan also showed that Tutankhamun had experienced a compound leftleg fracture. The counterargument of the injury being the result of modern mummy damage has been ruled out due to the ragged edges of the fracture; this is in contrast to modern mummy damage edge patterns, which feature sharp edges. Additionally,embalming substances were present within the fracture, indicating that the wound was present before Tutankhamun's mummification. No signs of healing were present, suggesting that the wound occurred very recently before Tutankhamun's death.[97] In overview, it is reasonable to conclude that Tutankhamun died from leg fracture complications, possibly exacerbated by malarial infection. Egyptologist Raymond Johnson has remarked that it is possible that the leg injury occurred during battle while Tutankhamun was on a military campaign.[55]
Another podiatric diagnosis of Tutankhamun is a leftclubfoot, which is heavily disputed.[99] If he was inflicted with clubfoot, it could have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of acane as amobility aid. More than 130 various canes and sticks were found in his tomb.[25] Some scholars interpret this as evidence of podiatric illness,[100] but this is heavily disputed. Many of the sticks were not of amedical type, and were insteadfashion accessory sticks likecrooks orsceptres likewas-sceptres, which served as types ofstaffs of office.[101] Furthermore, opposed to being clinical assistance, thecanes were status symbols functioning as royal regalia forreligious rituals and public appearances. Egyptologist Nick Brown has articulated that Tutankhamun's sticks "served as essentially kinglyinsignia during his rule, not as walking aids". Records of other ancient Egyptians' stick usage are consistent with this. For example, the tomb of ancient Egyptiannomarch,Djehutynakht, had over 250 walking sticks in his tomb,[102] while pharaohAmenhotep II, known forhis athletic prowess, is depicted being gifted 30 walking sticks in artwork in tombTT93, the tomb ofKen-Amun.[103]
Another factor in the walking sticks being regalia, as opposed to assistive canes, is the pattern of wear on the sticks. None of them shows the extent of wear expected of essential aids. Also, the wear on Tutankhamun's sandals, where present, was even on both feet.[104] This symmetry indicates that Tutankhamun was not relying more on one foot for mobility, challenging speculated podiatric diagnoses.[105] Around 2020, theTutankhamun's Sticks and Staves Project was launched to investigate by an international team of scientists that aimed to analyze the various stick objects in Tutankhamun's tomb. One of the main research goals was to investigate signs of usage on the sticks. The results were that there was very little wear on the sticks, indicating that they were not used to an extent that one would expect if Tutankhamun was using them as assistive canes. The researchers concluded:
These sticks were not used as supports, and were more likely ceremonial accessories/objects that did not hit the ground frequently... it does not seem as if Tutankhamun leant heavily for support on the sticks that have been found in his tomb...The absence wear on the tips of the sticks suggests that the king was stronger and more able-bodied than has been suggested, not needing a stick as walking aid, but using it more as a stylish accessory or as part of his royal regalia, as would have been the case for any other pharaoh.[106]
This research is consistent with prior research conducted examining the extent of usage of the sticks. Overall, evidence points towards Tutankhamun having healthy mobility.
James Gamble had instead suggested that Tutankhamun's left clubfoot position is a result of Tutankhamun habitually walking on the outside of his foot due to the pain caused by Köhler disease II.[109] This hypothesis has been refuted by members of Hawass' team.[110]
Researchers argued that the results of the 2005 mummy CT scan suggest Tutankhamun had a partialcleft palate on his hard palate.[117] Researchers also speculated that had mildscoliosis.[118] Nevertheless, Tutankhamun'svertebra did not display any rotation or deformation, suggesting that the mummyspinal curvature resulted from embalmer handling.[119]
Physical appearance
Close-up of Tutankhamun's mummified head
The appearance of ancient Egyptians, especially Tutankhamun, has remained an area of inquiry and debate.[120] Tutankhamun was of slight build; his mummy measured approximately 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.[121][122] Analysis of the clothing found in his tomb, particularly the dimensions of his loincloths and belts suggest that he had a narrow waist and rounded hips.[123]
Multiple attempts have been made to reconstruct a computerized image of Tutankhamun's face, and there has been one attempt at reconstructing imagery of his full figure. Reconstructions have repeatedly incited controversy upon release.
In 2005, an extensivelymedia-covered study by theEgyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities andNational Geographic employed three different research teams (Egyptian, French, and American) to develop a facial image usingCT scans of his skull. The Egyptian and French teams were informed that their subject was Tutankhamun, while the American team was not informed who the subject was, thereby working blindly. Results were generally similar, although the reconstruction did not resembleeffigy artifacts of Tutankhamun.[125][126] The depiction sparked controversy, particularly for its skin color, which also did not resemble painted effigies of Tutankhamun, such as theHead of Nefertem artifact or themannequin artifact.[127] Throughout the years, the image's light-skinned representation has ignited numerouspicketing protests outside multiple Tutankhamun exhibits that included the depiction.[128][129][130] Terry Garcia, executive vice president for mission programs for National Geographic in response to protests purported that Tutankhamun's exact skin tone is unknown and that they aimed for a middle skin tone.[131]
In 2007, amidst more exhibition protests, anthropologistNina Jablonski addressed what an educated guess of Tutankhamun's skin tone might be:
"Our best guess is that he was neither lily white nor ebony black. He was probably somewhere in between... When we look at the representation of the Egyptian royalty on the walls of tombs, we see a range of sort of moderate,tan-colored skin on the royalty. This probably is a fairly close approximation of what skin color these people actually had."[132]
In 2008, EgyptologistStuart Tyson Smith criticized the skin-tone choice of the 2005 study, stating that the light skin tone was indicative of a bias, elaborating that ancient Egyptians were generally of darker skin tone, especially in more southern regions.[133] In 2022, bioarcheologist Andrew Nelson used CT scans and the 3D bioimaging software, Dragonfly, to create a virtual model of Tutankhamun's face. The result was distinct from prior reconstructions from skull CT scans. Nelson stated that the skull anatomy guided the project which made for a more realistic reconstruction.[134][135] Nelson's study did not overlay a skin tone on the facial reconstruction. In 2023, researchers developed a new version of Tutankhamun's face using furtherCT scans.[136][137] Results greatly resembled the results of the CT scan reconstruction performed in 2005.[138] The skin tone was also akin to the skin tone chosen in the 2005 study.
Depictions of Tutankhamun deemedAfrocentristic have repeatedly generated protest and tension. In 2023, an exhibit titled"Kemet: Egypt in Hip-Hop, Jazz, Soul and Funk" at theDutch National Museum of Antiquities inLeiden, Netherlands depicted a statue of rapper Nas's (1999)I Am... album cover, which portrays Nas's face in the Mask of Tutankhamun.[139] Egyptian antiquities expert Abd al-Rahim Rihan accused the exhibit curators of promoting Afrocentricpseudohistory by displaying the Tutankhamun mask with black facial features, indirectly advocating theblack Egyptian hypothesis.[140] Similarly, Ahmed Belal, an Egyptian member of parliament, accused the exhibit curators of "distorting Egyptian identity" and "attacking Egyptian heritage and civilization."[141] The exhibit curators denied the accusations, stating that the exhibit takes a neutral position on the race of ancient Egyptians. Daniel Soliman, the exhibition curator, who himself is half-Egyptian, stated that some Egyptians feel an exclusive possession to the pharaonic heritage, while the African diaspora's artistic envisioned of ancient Egypt has been ignored.[142] Museum director Wim Weijland stated that the exhibition is about art, not racially classifying ancient Egyptians.[143]
Egyptian journalist,Shahira Amin, in a 2023 article titled"Egyptians aren't racist. They're frustrated with Western appropriation of their ancient history", wrote that "many Egyptians shun their Africanness, preferring to associate themselves with the Middle East and identify as Muslims and Arabs."[144]
Full-body reconstruction
In a 2014BBCdocumentary, presented byDallas Campbell, titledTutankhamun: The Truth Uncovered, revealed results of a computerized forensic reconstruction of Tutankhamun's body that harnessed 2,000 CT scans of Tutankhamun's mummy to generate an image of his body.[145] The resultant image depicted Tutankhamun in hisunderwear, physically infirm with aclub foot, anoverbite, agynecomasticchest, and multiple other visiblephysical disorders.[146][147] The reconstruction was controversial, characterized as being ofpoor taste. Jonathan Jones ofThe Guardian articulated that the imagery was a "morbidfreak show" and "crass and vulgarinfotainment".[148] Egyptologist Zahi Hawass criticized that the virtual reconstruction of Tutankhamun's body was scientifically unfounded.[149]Disability studies scholars have criticized the reconstruction of Tutankhamun, stating that they were derogatory and "seemed designed to exaggerate the physical features of said impairments, rather than offer any scientific value, let alone any humanity or recognition that this historical figure was a man".[150]
Death
Scenes from the north wall of the burial chamber of Tutankhamun. On the left side, Tutankhamun, followed by hiska (an aspect of his soul), embraces the god of the deadOsiris. In the center, Tutankhamun is greeting the goddessNut. On the right side,Ay performing the opening of the mouth for Tutankhamun.[151]
There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun's death; it has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies.[152]Hawass and his team postulate that his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, his femur fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.[153]
Murder by a blow to the head was hypothesised as a result of the 1968x-ray, which showed two bone fragments inside the skull.[154] This hypothesis was then disproved by further analysis of thex-rays and the CT scan. The intercranial bone fragments were determined to be the result of the modern unwrapping of the mummy, as they are loose and not adherent to the embalming resin.[155] No evidence of bone thinning or calcified membranes, which could be indicative of a fatal blow to the head, was found.[156] It has also been suggested that the Tutankhamun was killed in a chariot accident due to a pattern of crushing injuries, including the fact that the front part of his chest wall and ribs are missing.[157][158] However, the missing ribs are unlikely to be a result of an injury sustained at the time of death; photographs taken at the conclusion of Carter's excavation in 1926 show that the chest wall of the king was intact, still wearing a beaded collar with falcon-headed terminals. The absence of both the collar and chest wall was noted in the 1968x-ray[159] and further confirmed by the CT scan.[118] the front part of his chest was likely removed by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar;[160] the intricate beaded skullcap the king was pictured wearing in 1926 was also missing by 1968.[161]
Since the two children of Tutankhamun were either stillborn or did not survive long after birth, and Tutankhamun was presumably the last of the royal male siblings, there was no immediateheir apparent to assume the throne. Records in Horemheb's tomb state that Tutankhamun appointed him "lord of the land" asIry-pat (heir designate), which is essentially thedesignated hereditary prince to maintain law. However, some have argued that Queen Ankhesenamun may have been able to transfer kinship to a husband, but would have preferred not to marry someone of lesser status than royal queen status. Horemheb was a militaryman of peasant birth and was, as the military commander-in-chief, technically a servant of Queen Ankhesenamun. The vizierAy, while of some royal blood, was an established vizier and also technically a servant of Queen Ankhesenamun. Ankhesenamun's assumed spousal preferences may have ignited a series of disruptions in the fulfillment of what some have argued may have been King Tutankhamun's preference on throne heirship.[162]
Reign of vizier Ay
Seeking to resolve her spousal dilemma, Ankhesenamun may have inadvertently generated a predicament involving the Hittite kingSuppiluliuma I and his son, princeZannanza, known as theZannanza affair, although Ankhesenamun's identification as the Egyptian queen in question is not definite. Meanwhile, during thisinterregnum period, Tutankhamun's vizier, Ay, may have maneuvered in the midst of Tutankhamun's death to intercept the throne, circumventing Horemheb's heirship, possibly marrying Ankhesenamun towards the onset of this Hittite-Egyptian negotiation period, unbeknownst to the Hittites. The fact that Ay is depicted presiding over Tutankhamun's funeral, which is customary for the successor pharaoh, and the fact that Horemheb appears to have been absent at Tutankhamun's funeral align with this.[163]
The pharaoh Ay's reign was short, and his death again appears to have left a vacancy on the throne with no royal bloodline heir because Ay is presumed to have not had children with Queen Ankhesenamun. Toward the end of Ay's reign, Ay named his son, militarygeneralissimoNakhtmin, to be successor to the throne. However, Nakhtmin died before he could become pharaoh.[164]
Horemheb Iry-pat fulfillment
Horemheb succeeded to the throne as pharaoh after Ay's death. As pharaoh, Horemheb saw to it that the restoration of the traditional ancient Egyptian religion that Tutankhamun was previously spearheading was completed, restabilizing the nation. Notably, during the standarddamnatio memoriae process that each new Egyptian pharaoh undertakes, Horemheb defaced Ay's tomb, but left Tutankhamun's untouched, presumably out of respect.[165] Nevertheless, Horemheb's damnatio memoriae venture was one of the most elaborate and successful damnatio memoriae campaigns in Egyptian history.[166]
In due course, Horemheb had selected then civilian military officer,Ramesses I, as heir to the throne. Ramesses I's grandson,Ramesses II, would go on to found the Ramesside dynasty and become the greatest pharaoh of ancient Egypt.[165] This initiated a new royal bloodline, replacing the royal bloodline that ended with the death of Tutankhamun.
Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causinghis mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.[167] His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, these robberies likely took place within several months at most of the initial burial. The location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by debris from subsequent tombs, and workers' houses were built over the tomb entrance.[168]
The concession rights for excavating the Valley of the Kings were held byTheodore Davis from 1905 until 1914. In that time, he had unearthed ten tombs, including the nearly intact but non-royal tomb ofQueen Tiye's parents,Yuya andThuya. As he continued working there in the later years, he uncovered nothing of major significance.[169] Davis did find several objects inKV58 referring to Tutankhamun, which included knobs and handles bearing his name, most significantly the embalming cache of the king (KV54). He believed this to be the pharaoh's lost tomb and published his findings as such with the line; "I fear the Valley of the Tombs is exhausted".[170][171] In 1907,Howard Carter was invited by William Garstin andGaston Maspero to excavate forGeorge Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley. The Earl of Carnarvon and Carter had hoped this would lead to their gaining the concession when Davis gave it up, but had to be satisfied with excavations in different parts of theTheban Necropolis for seven more years.[172]
After a systematic search beginning in 1915, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.[173] An ancient stroke of luck allowed the tomb to survive to modern times. The tomb's entrance was buried by mounds of debris from the cutting ofKV9 over 150 years after Tutankhamun's burial; ancient workmen's huts were also built on the site.[174][175] This area remained unexcavated until 1922 due to its proximity to KV9, as excavations would impede tourist access to that tomb.[176] Carter commenced excavations in early November 1922, before the height of the tourist season.[177] The first step of the tomb's entrance staircase was uncovered on 4 November 1922. According to Carter's account, the workmen discovered the step while digging beneath the remains of the huts; Other accounts attribute the discovery to a boy namedHussein Abdul Rasoul (Water boy) who was digging outside the designated work area.[178][l]
By February 1923, the antechamber had been cleared of everything but two sentinel statues. A day and time were selected to unseal the tomb with about twenty appointed witnesses that included Lord Carnarvon, several Egyptian officials, museum representatives, and the staff of the Government Press Bureau. On 17 February 1923 at just after two o'clock, the seal was broken.[182]
Letters published in 2022 of correspondence betweenRex Engelbach andAlan Gardiner reveal that Howard Carter had stolen objects from the tomb before the tomb was officially opened. For instance, Rex Engelbach said in a letter to Gardiner about a 'whm amulet' gifted to Gardiner from Carter that "The whm amulet you showed me has been undoubtedly stolen from the tomb of Tutankhamun."[183]
Tutankhamun's tomb is the only royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings found in near-intact condition.[184] There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin,face mask, thrones, archery bows,trumpets, alotus chalice, twoImiut fetishes,gold toe stalls, furniture, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.[185] Analysis from the 1960s onwards suggestsa dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from ameteorite;[186] study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun's tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.[187][188] Complete study of the iron artefacts from the tomb (besides the blade of a richly decorated golden dagger, small iron chisel blades set into wooden handles, an Eye of Horus amulet, and a miniature headrest) demonstrated that all were made of similar material.[189] Only in 2022, a complex technological and material study of the Tutankhamun's mask was published.[190] Many of Tutankhamun's burial goods show signs of being adapted for his use after being originally made for earlier owners, probably Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten or both.[191][192][193] The golden Nutpectoral (Carter no. 261p1) or (Cairo JE61944) was reused for the funeral of Tutankhamun.Marc Gabolde successfully demonstrated that the original cartouches reinscribed on the pectoral with Tutankhamun'snomen andprenomen were those of Neferneferuaten with the variation ofAnkhkheperure-Mery-Waenre andNeferneferuaten-Akhetenhies “One Who is Beneficial for Her Husband,” proving Neferneferuaten was afemale king who was at the same time the wife of Akhenaten.[194] Traces of the cartouches of Neferneferuaten were also identified underneath the cartouches of Tutankhamun on the four miniature golden canopic coffins [of the Boy King]."[195]
On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter's discovery, Tutankhamun's mummy was placed on display in his underground tomb atLuxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[196] In 2009, the tomb was closed for restoration by theMinistry of Antiquities and the Getty Conservation Institute. While the closure was originally planned for five years to restore the walls affected by humidity, theEgyptian revolution of 2011 set the project back. The tomb reopened in February 2019.[197]
Rumoured curse
Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun, 1925
For many years, rumors of a "curse of the pharaohs" (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery[198]) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent wasGeorge Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who died on 5 April 1923, five months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.[199]
The cause of Carnarvon's death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue).[200] The Earl had been in an automobile accident in 1901, making him very unhealthy and frail. His doctor recommended a warmer climate, so in 1903, the Carnarvons traveled to Egypt, where the Earl became interested in Egyptology.[199] Along with the stresses of the excavation, Carnarvon was already in a weakened state when an infection led to pneumonia.[201]
A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb andsarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years;[202] Howard Carter died oflymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.[203] The last survivors includedLady Evelyn Herbert,Lord Carnarvon's daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,[204] and American archaeologistJ.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.[205]
Tutankhamun's fame is primarily the result of his well-preserved tomb and the global exhibitions of his associated artifacts. AsJon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter'sThe Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned".[206]
The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modernneologism, "King Tut". Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, includingTin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was "Old King Tut" byHarry Von Tilzer from 1923,[207][208] which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time asJones & Hare[209] andSophie Tucker.[207] "King Tut" became the name of products, businesses, and thepet dog of U.S. PresidentHerbert Hoover.[210] WhileThe Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibit was touring the United States in 1978, comedianSteve Martin wrote a novelty song "King Tut". Originally performed onSaturday Night Live, the song was released as a single and sold over a million copies.[211] In 2023, an extinct whale discovered in theEocene deposits of Egypt was namedTutcetus, after Tutankhamun, due to the small size and immature age of the type specimen.[212]
San Francisco's M. H. de Young Memorial Museum hosted an exhibition of Tutankhamun artifacts in 2009[213]
Tutankhamun's artifacts have traveled the world with unprecedented visitorship.[214] The exhibitions began in 1962 whenAlgeria won itsindependence fromFrance. With the ending of that conflict, theLouvre Museum in Paris was quickly able to arrange an exhibition of Tutankhamun's treasures throughChristiane Desroches Noblecourt. The French Egyptologist was already in Egypt as part of aUNESCO appointment. The French exhibit drew 1.2 million visitors. Noblecourt had also convinced the Egyptian Minister of Culture to allow British photographerGeorge Rainbird to re-photograph the collection in color. The new color photos, as well as the Louvre exhibition, began a Tutankhamun revival.[215]
Pectoral of Tutankhamun
In 1965, the Tutankhamun exhibit traveled toTokyo National Museum inTokyo, Japan (21 August–10 October)[216] where it garnered more visitors than the future New York exhibit in 1979. The exhibit next moved to theKyoto Municipal Museum of Art in Kyoto (15 October–28 November)[216] with almost 1.75 million visitors, and then to theFukuoka Prefectural Cultural Hall in Fukuoka (3 December–26 December).[216] Theblockbuster attraction exceeded all other exhibitions of Tutankhamun's treasures for the next 60 years.[214][217]The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at theBritish Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition.[214][218] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany.The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.[219][220] The showing in the United States was part of a diplomatic effort begun byHenry Kissinger to further convince Americans of the value of Egypt as an ally. It traveled first to Washington, D.C., then to Chicago, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Seattle, and finished in New York.[221]
Amulets and Bracelets of TutankhamunBracelet of Tutankhamun
In 2005, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time calledTutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits asTutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people, but exceeded that with almost four million people attending just the first four tour stops.[222] The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved toFort Lauderdale, Chicago,Philadelphia and London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at theDallas Museum of Art.[223] After Dallas the exhibition moved to thede Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by theDiscovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[224]
Tutankhamun exhibition in 2018A solar barque scarab beetle pectoral from Tutankhamun's tombA gem stone bracelet found on Tutankhamun body
The exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum for its only Australian stop before Egypt's treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.[225]
The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun's immediate predecessors in the 18th Dynasty, such asHatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun's burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun's tomb. The exhibition did not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that the damage that occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.[226]
In 2018, it was announced that the largest collection of Tutankhamun artifacts, amounting to forty percent of the entire collection, would be leaving Egypt again in 2019 for an international tour entitled; "King Tut: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh".[227] The 2019–2022 tour began with an exhibit called; "Tutankhamun, Pharaoh's Treasures," which launched in Los Angeles and then traveled to Paris. The exhibit featured at theGrande Halle de la Villette in Paris ran from March to September 2019. The exhibit featured one hundred and fifty gold coins, along with various pieces of jewelry, sculpture, and carvings, as well as the gold mask of Tutankhamun. Promotion of the exhibit filled the streets of Paris with posters of the event. The exhibit moved to London in November 2019 and was scheduled to travel to Boston and Sydney when theCOVID-19 pandemic interrupted the tour. On 28 August 2020 the artifacts that made up the temporary exhibition returned to theEgyptian Museum, Cairo, and other institutions.[228] The treasures will be permanently housed in the newGrand Egyptian Museum in Cairo, expected to open between October 2023 and February 2024.[229][230][231]
^abcdefgCooney - Jasno - pp. 219 - 220 "DNA indicated a probability in excess of 99.99%" that Amenhotep III was the father of the man interred in KV55. The probability that the man interred in KV55 is the father of Tutankhamun was equally as great." "[T]he lock of hair found in Tutankhamun's tomb seemed to link him in some intimate way to KV35EL". "Tiye's parents, Yuya and Thuya, had been found.." "..genetic analysis confirmed KV35EL as their daughter." "Furthermore, and as anticipated, the KV55 mummy genetically matched as the offspring of KV35EL." "Perhaps the most curious results of the genetic fingerprinting came from KV35YL. She proved to be not only a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye but also the mother of Tutankhamun."[α]
^Tutankhaten was believed to mean"Living-image-of-Aten" as far back as 1877; however, not all Egyptologists agree with this interpretation. English EgyptologistBattiscombe Gunn believed that the older interpretation did not fit withAkhenaten's theology. Gunn believed that such a name would have beenblasphemous. He sawtut as a verb and not a noun and gave his translation in 1926 asThe-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing. Professor Gerhard Fecht also believed the wordtut was a verb. He noted that Akhenaten usedtit as a word for 'image', nottut. Fecht translated the verbtut as"To be perfect/complete". Using Aten as the subject, Fecht's full translation was"One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten". The Hermopolis Block (two carved block fragments discovered in Ashmunein) has a unique spelling of the first nomen written asTutankhuaten; it usesankh as a verb, which does support the older translation ofLiving-image-of-Aten.[10]
^His parents are suggested to be Meritaten and her known husband Smenkhkare based on a re-examination of a box lid and coronation tunic found in his tomb.[19]
^Meketaten's candidacy is based on a relief from theRoyal Tomb atAmarna which depicts a child in the arms of a nurse outside a chamber in which Meketaten is being mourned by her parents and siblings, which has been interpreted to indicate she died in childbirth.[20] This possibility has been deemed unlikely given that she was about 10 years old at the time of her death.[21]
^The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain thatAmenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[26] More recent genetic analysis, published in 2020, revealed Tutankhamun shared his Y-haplogroup with his father, the KV55 mummy (Akhenaten), and grandfather, Amenhotep III, and his mtDNA haplogroup with his mother, The Younger Lady, his grandmother, Tiye, and his great-grandmother,Thuya, upholding the results of the earlier genetic study.[27]
^Tutankhamun's Horus Name wasKa nakht tut mesut,[3] translated as;Victorious bull, the (very) image of (re)birth.[5]
^His second full nomen (also called the Son of Re Name) was;Tut ankh imen, heqa iunu shemau, translated as;The living image of Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis.[5]
^Tutankahmun's Nebty or Two Ladies Name was; (1):Nefer hepu, segereh tawy,[3] translated as;Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands.[5] (2):Nefer hepu, segereh tawy sehetep netjeru nebu, translated as;Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands and pacified all the gods.[5] (3):Wer ah imen, translated as;The great one of the palace of Amun.[47]
^Tutankhamun's Gold Falcon Name was: (1):Wetjes khau, sehetep netjeru[3] translated as;Elevated of appearances, who has satisfied the gods.[5] *Gold Falcon name (2):Wetjes khau it ef ra, translates as;Who has elevated the appearances of his father Re.[47]
^Tutankhamun'sPrenomen (Throne Name) was:Neb kheperu re,[3][47] translated as:The possessor of the manifestation of Re,[5] which had anepithet added:Heqa maat, translated as;Ruler of Maat.[47]
^Karl Kitchen, a reporter for theBoston Globe, wrote in 1924 that a boy named Mohamed Gorgar had found the step; he interviewed Gorgar, who did not say whether the story was true.[179] Lee Keedick, the organiser of Carter's American lecture tour, said Carter attributed the discovery to an unnamed boy carrying water for the workmen.[180] Many recent accounts, such as the 2018 bookTutankhamun: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh by the EgyptologistZahi Hawass, identify the water-boy as Hussein Abd el-Rassul, a member of a prominent local family. Hawass says that he heard this story from el-Rassul in person. Another Egyptologist, Christina Riggs, suggests the story may instead be a conflation of Keedick's account, which was widely publicised by the 1978 bookTutankhamun: The Untold Story byThomas Hoving, with el-Rassul's long-standing claim to have been the boy who was photographed wearing one of Tutankhamun's pectorals in 1926.[181]
^Nozomu Kawai, Neferneferuaten from the Tomb of Tutankhamun Revisited in "Wonderful Things Essays in Honor of Nicholas Reeves" (2023), p.121 Kawai writes on page 121: "After Akhenaten's death, Neferneferuaten continued in power as sole ruler for approximately three years."
^Hussein, Kais; Matin, Ekatrina; Nerlich, Andreas G. (2013). "Paleopathology of the juvenile Pharaoh Tutankhamun—90th anniversary of discovery".Virchows Archiv.463 (3):475–479.doi:10.1007/s00428-013-1441-1.PMID23812343.S2CID1481224.
^Markel, H. (17 February 2010). "King Tutankhamun, modern medical science, and the expanding boundaries of historical inquiry".JAMA.303 (7):667–668.doi:10.1001/jama.2010.153.PMID20159878.
^Gamble, James G. (23 June 2010). "King Tutankhamun's Family and Demise".JAMA.303 (24): 2472, author reply 2473–5.doi:10.1001/jama.2010.820.PMID20571009.
^Gad, Yehia Z.; Selim, Ashraf; Pusch, Carsten M. (23 June 2010). "King Tutankhamun's Family and Demise—Reply".JAMA.303 (24): 2471.doi:10.1001/jama.2010.823.
^Markel, H. (17 February 2010). "King Tutankhamun, modern medical science, and the expanding boundaries of historical inquiry".JAMA.303 (7):667–668.doi:10.1001/jama.2010.153.PMID20159878.
^Cavka, Mislav; Kelava, Tomislav (April 2013). "Comment on: Familial epilepsy in the pharaohs of ancient Egypt's eighteenth dynasty".Epilepsy & Behavior.27 (1): 278.doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.11.044.PMID23291226.S2CID43043052.
^Carter, Howard; Derry, Douglas E. (1927).The Tomb of Tutankhamen. Cassel and Company, LTD. p. 157.
^Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. M. (1999).Tutankhamun's Wardrobe: garments from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Rotterdam: Barjesteh van Waalwijk van Doorn. pp. 18–19.ISBN90-5613-042-0.
^Morris, Alexandra F.; Jordan, Kyle Lewis (4 December 2024). "The Measure of a Man".Disability in Ancient Egypt and Egyptology. London: Routledge. pp. 42–59.doi:10.4324/9781003440369-5.ISBN978-1-003-44036-9.
^"The Golden Age of Tutankhamun: Divine Might and Splendour in the New Kingdom",Zahi Hawass, p. 61, American University in Cairo Press, 2004,ISBN977-424-836-8
^Broschat, Katja; Ströbele, Florian; Koeberl, Christian; Eckmann, Christian; Mertah, Eid (2022).Iron from Tutankhamun's tomb. Translated by Manon Schutz. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-1-64903-032-0.OCLC1346417460.
^Broschat, Katja; Eckmann, Christian; Tawfik, Tarek; Rehren, Thilo; Geōrgakopulu, Myrtō; Golfomitsou, Stavroula; Cramer, Anja; Heinz, Guido (2022).Tutanchamuns Mumienmaske Chronographie einer Ikone. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums.ISBN978-3-88467-356-0.OCLC1376256828.
^ Marc Gabolde, “La parenté de Toutânkhamon,” BSFE 155 (2003): pp.19–26
^Nozomu Kawai, "Neferneferuaten from the Tomb of Tutankhamun Revisited" in Wonderful Things Essays in Honor of Nicholas Reeves, Lockwood Press, (2023), pp.114
^abConiam, Matthew (2017).Egyptomania Goes to the Movies: From Archaeology to Popular Craze to Hollywood Fantasy.McFarland & Company. pp. 42–44.ISBN978-1-4766-6828-4. Retrieved18 July 2022....on May 19, [1923] when Motion Picture News reported that to further assist its exhibitors Fox had arranged with Harry Von Tilzer for a special and complete orchestration titled "Old King Tut" ... Sophie Tucker performed it in The Pepper Box Revue and recorded it for Okeh Records both with sufficient success that she took out an ad in Variety ...
^Paul, Gill (18 July 2021)."1920s "Tutmania" and its Enduring Echoes | History News Network".historynewsnetwork.org.History News Network. Retrieved17 July 2022.Tutmania seeped into popular culture with the 1923 song "Old King Tut", a stage magician who called himself "Carter the Great", and the iconic 1932 horror filmThe Mummy, written by a journalist who had covered the discovery of the tomb. President Herbert Hoover even called his pet dog King Tut!
Gabolde, Marc (2000).D'Akhenaton à Toutânkhamon. Université Lumière-Lyon 2, Institut d'archéologie et d'histoire de l'antiquité.ISBN978-2-911971-02-0.OCLC607262790.
Gad, Yehia; Ismail, Somaia; Fathalla, Dina; Khairat, Rabab; Fares, Suzan; Gad, Ahmed Zakaria; Saad, Rama; Moustafa, Amal; ElShahat, Eslam; Mandil, Naglaa; Fateen, Mohamed; Elleithy, Hisham; Wasef, Sally; Zink, Albert; Hawass, Zahi; Pusch, Carsten (2020)."Maternal and paternal lineages in King Tutankhamun's family".Guardian of Ancient Egypt: Essays in Honor of Zahi Hawass. Czech Institute of Egyptology. pp. 1–23. Retrieved16 February 2022.
Reeves, Nicholas (2015)."Tutankhamun's Mask Reconsidered (2015)".Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar.19:511–526. Retrieved7 September 2019 – via Academia.edu.
Ridley, Ronald T. (2019).Akhenaten: A Historian's View. Cairo and New York: The American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-416-793-5.OCLC8993387156.
Thompson, Jason (2018).Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology, 3. From 1914 to the Twenty-First Century. American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-416-760-7.
Williamson, Jacquelyn (2015)."Amarna Period". In Wendrich, Willeke (ed.).UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UC Los Angeles.
Winstone, H. V. F. (2006).Howard Carter and the Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, Revised Edition. Barzan Publishing.ISBN978-1-905521-04-3.
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