Turners (German:Turner,German:[ˈtʊʁnɐ]ⓘ) are members ofGerman-American gymnastic clubs calledTurnvereine. They promoted German culture,physical culture, and liberal politics. Turners, especiallyFrancis Lieber (1798–1872), were the leading sponsors of gymnastics as an American sport and the field of academic study.
In Germany, a major gymnastic movement was started byTurnvater ("father of gymnastics") and nationalistFriedrich Ludwig Jahn in the early 19th century when Germany was occupied byNapoleon. TheTurnvereine (German:[ˈtʊʁnfɛɐ̯ˌʔaɪ̯nə]ⓘ; "gymnastic unions"; from Germanturnen meaning “to practice gymnastics,” andVerein meaning “club, union”) were not only athletic but also political, reflecting their origin in similar ethnocentric "national gymnastic" organizations in Europe (such as the CzechSokol), who were participants in various national movements for independence. TheTurner movement in Germany was generallyliberal in nature, and many Turners took part in theRevolutions of 1848.[1]
After the failure of the 1848 Revolution in Germany, the Turner movement was suppressed, and many Turners left Germany, some emigrating to the United States, especially to theOhio Valley region,Wisconsin,Missouri, andTexas. Several of theseForty-Eighters went on to becomeUnion soldiers, and some becameRepublican politicians.[2] Besides serving as physical education, social, political, and cultural organizations for German immigrants, Turners were also active in public education and labor movements.[3][4][5] They were leading promoters of gymnastics in the United States as a sport and as a school subject.[6] In the United States, the movement declined after 1900, and especially after 1917.[7]
The Turner movement was preceded by the first wave of gymnastics in the United States in the 1820s, led by Germans, such asCharles Beck andCharles Follen, and Americans, such asJohn Neal. Beck opened the first gymnasium in the U.S. in 1825 at theRound Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts.[8] Follen opened the first college gymnasium and the first public gymnasium in the States in 1826 atHarvard College and in Boston, Massachusetts, respectively.[9] Neal was the first American to open a public gymnasium in the U.S. in Portland, Maine in 1827.[10] He also documented and promoted these early efforts in theAmerican Journal of Education[11] andThe Yankee, helping to establish the American branch of the movement.[12]
TheTurnvereine made a contribution to the integration of German-Americans into their new home. The organizations continue to exist in areas of heavy German immigration, such asIowa,Texas,Wisconsin,Indiana,Ohio,Minnesota,Missouri,Syracuse, New York,Kentucky,New York City,Sacramento, andLos Angeles.
About 1000 Turners served as Union soldiers during the Civil War. Anti-slavery was a common element, as typified byCarl Schurz. Many Republican leaders in German communities were members. They provided the bodyguard at Abraham Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, 1861, and at his funeral in April 1865. In theCamp Jackson Affair, a large force of German volunteers helped prevent Confederate forces from seizing the government arsenal inSt. Louis just prior to the beginning of the war.[13] After the Civil War, the national organization took a new name,Nordamerikanischer Turnerbund, and supported German-language teaching in public high schools, as well as gymnastics. Women's auxiliaries were formed in the 1850s and 1860s. The high point in membership came in 1894, with 317 societies and about 40,000 adult male members, along with 25,000 children and 3000 women.[14]
In the 1904 Olympics several competitors represented various Turners organizations in Missouri, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York, and some of the teams at the Olympics were sponsored by Turners organizations.
Like otherGerman-American groups, the Turners experienced suspicion duringWorld War I, even though they now had very little contact with Germany. German-language instruction ended at many schools and universities, and the federal government imposed restrictions on German-language publications. The younger generation generally demanded the switch to the exclusive use of English society affairs, which allowed many Turner societies to continue to function.[3]
Cultural assimilation and both World Wars with Germany took a gradual toll on membership, with some halls closing and others becoming regular dance halls, bars, or bowling alleys.[5] As of 2011, 54 Turner societies still existed around the U.S. The current headquarters of American Turners is inLouisville, Kentucky.[15]
In 1948, theUS Post Office issued a 3-centcommemorative stamp to mark the 100th anniversary of the movement in the country.
The Turnverein in Sacramento, founded in 1854, claims to be the oldest institution within the city still in existence.[16] The Turnverein Vorwaerts ofFort Wayne, Indiana, owned theHugh McCulloch House from 1906 until 1966.[17]: 2 It was listed on theNational Register of Historic Places in 1980.[18]
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