Known asTuran to thePersians, "Ma wara'u'n-nahr" (by its Arab conquerors), andTransoxiana by western travelers. The latter two names refer to its position beyond the RiverOxus when approached from the south, emphasizing Turkestan's long-standing relationship withIran, thePersian Empires, and theUmayyad andAbbasidCaliphates.
Chaghatay-language map depicting Turkestan (تورکستان), from the November 1931 issue of theBerlin-basedYash Turkistan [uz] magazine
OfPersian origin (see-stan), the term "Turkestan" (ترکستان) had historically never referred to a singlenation state.[2] Persian geographers first used the word to describe the place whereTurkic peoples lived.[3][2] According to ethnographerDávid Somfai Kara, prior to theRussian conquest, Turkestan historically referred only to the western portion of Central Asia:[4]
The Eastern part of Central Asia (inhabited by nomads of theTien Shan Mountains and settled peoples of theTarim Basin) was calledMoghulistan (“Mongol land”). The Western part (inhabited by nomads ofSyr-darya and settled peoples ofKhwarazm) was called Turkestan (Turk land), although they were both inhabited by linguistically Turkic ethnic groups. Beginning in the nineteenth century, the term Turkestan was also applied toFerghana andMawara-an-nahr by the Russians.
In 1969, aTurfanian document from 639 CE was found in the Astana district of Turpan, which recordedSogdian sale contract of a female slave from the period of the Gaochang kingdom under the rule of Qu clan and mentioned the Sogdian word "twrkstn", which may have referred to the lands to the east and north ofSyr Darya in the realm of theFirst Turkic Khaganate.[6]: 14, 15
In 2024, Turkish Ministry of Education changed the term 'Central Asia' (Turkish:Orta Asya) to 'Turkestan' (Turkish:Türkistan) in history textbooks.[7][8]
The history of the Central Asian region that was later called Turkestan dates back to at least thethird millennium BC. Manyartifacts were produced in that period, with much trade being conducted. The region was a focal point forcultural diffusion, as theSilk Road traversed it.
Turkic sagas, such as the "Ergenekon" legend, and written sources, such as theOrkhon Inscriptions, in the 8th century AD, state that Turkic peoples originated in the nearbyAltai Mountains, and, through nomadic settlement, started their long journey westwards. Much earlier than the Gokturks or their Orkhon Inscriptions, other groups such as theHuns conquered the area after they conqueredKashgaria in the early 2nd century BC. With the dissolution of the Huns' Empire,Chinese rulers took over Eastern Central Asia, which was centuries later also called Turkestan.Arab forces captured it in the 8th century. ThePersianSamanid dynasty subsequently conquered it and the area experienced economic success.[9] The entire territory was held at various times by Turkic forces, such as theGöktürks, until the conquest byGenghis Khan and theMongols in 1220. Genghis Khan gave the territory to his sonChagatai and the area became theChagatai Khanate.[9]Timur took over the western portion of Turkestan in 1369, and the area became part of theTimurid Empire.[9] The eastern portion of Turkestan was also calledMoghulistan and continued to be ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan.
After the fall of theTang dynasty, various dynasties of non-Han ethnic origins gained prestige by portraying themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China. Qara Khitai monarchs used the title of "Chinese emperor",[11][12] and were also called the "Khan of Chīn".[13] The Qara Khitai used the "image of China" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's "five great kings".[14] Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelain, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert toIslam.[15] Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai.[16] These Han Chinese had lived inKedun [zh] during the Liao dynasty,[17] and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans underYelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as theBohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.[18]
Qara Khitai's rule over the Muslim-majorityCentral Asia has the effect of reinforcing the view among some Muslim writers that Central Asia was linked to China even though the Tang dynasty had lost control of the region a few hundred years ago.Marwazī wrote thatTransoxiana was a former part of China,[19] while Fakhr al-Dīn Mubārak Shāh defined China as part of "Turkestan", and the cities ofBalāsāghūn andKashghar were considered part of China.[20]
The association of Khitai with China meant that the most enduring trace of the Khitan's power is names that are derived from it, such asCathay, which is the medieval Latin appellation for China. Names derived from Khitai are still current in modern usage, such as the Russian, Bulgarian, Uzbek and Mongolian names for China.[21] However, the use of the name Khitai to mean "China" or "Chinese" byTurkic speakers within China, such as theUyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authorities, who tried to ban it.[22]
^abClewell, Gladys D.; Thompson, Holland.Lands and Peoples: The world in color. Vol. 3. p. 163.Never a single nation, the name Turkestan means simply the place ofTurkish peoples.
^ab"Soviet Affairs Study Group".Central Asian Review.16. London, England, St. Antony's College (University of Oxford): Central Asian Research Centre: 3.The name Turkestan is of Persian origin and was apparently first used by Persian geographers to describe "the country of the Turks". TheRussian Empire revived the word as a convenient name for the governorate-general established in 1867 (Туркестанское генерал-губернаторство); the termsUzbekistan,Turkmenistan, etc., came into use only after 1924.
^Meakin, Annette M. B. (1903).In Russian Turkestan: a garden of Asia and its people. p. 44.On their way southward fromSiberia in 1864, the Russians took it, and many writers affirm that mistaking its name for that of the entire region, they adopted the appellation of "Turkestan" for their new territory. Up to that time, they assure usKhanates ofBokhara,Khiva andKokand were known by these names alone. Yet I find that Gibbon also gave the name of Turkestan to that part of the world, and he wrote more than a hundred years earlier.
1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.
