The history of Tripoli dates back at least to the 14th century BC. It was called Athar by thePhoenicians, and laterTripolis by theGreek settlers, whence the modern Arabic nameṬarābulus derives. In theArab world, Tripoli has been historically known asṬarābulus ash-Shām (Arabic:طرابلس الشام,lit. 'Tripoli of theLevant'), to distinguish it fromits Libyan counterpart, known asṬarābulus al-Gharb (Arabic:طرابلس الغرب,lit. 'Tripoli of the West').
Landmarks of Tripoli include theMansouri Great Mosque and theCitadel of Tripoli, which is the largestcrusader castle in Lebanon. The city has the second highest concentration ofMamluk architecture afterCairo. Tripoli also holds a string of four small islands offshore, thePalm Islands, which were declared aprotected area because of their status as a haven for endangered loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta), rare monk seals andmigratory birds. Tripoli borders the city ofEl Mina, the port of the Tripoli District, which it is geographically conjoined with to form the greater Tripoli conurbation.
With the formation of Lebanon and the 1948 breakup of the Syrian–Lebanese customs union, Tripoli, once on par in economic and commercial importance to Beirut, was cut off from its traditional trade relations with the Syrian hinterland and therefore declined in relative prosperity.[5]
Tripoli had a number of different names as far back as thePhoenician age. In theAmarna letters the nameDerbly, possibly a Semitic cognate of the city's modern Arabic nameṬarābulus,[need quotation to verify] was mentioned, and in other placesAhlia (relating to the Semitic root of family)[7] orWahlia (relating to the proto-Semitic word for mud) are mentioned (14th century BC).[8] In an engraving concerning the invasion of Tripoli by theAssyrian KingAshurnasirpal II (888–859 BC), it is calledMahallata (from the proto-Semitic root for encampment or quarter) orMahlata,Mayza, andKayza.[9]
Under thePhoenicians, the nameAthar was used to refer to Tripoli.[10] When theAncient Greeks settled in the city they called itTrípolis, meaning 'triple city', influenced by the earlier phonetically similar but etymologically unrelated nameDerbly.[11] TheArabs called itṬarābulus andṬarābulus ash-Shām (referring tobilād ash-Shām, orLevant, to distinguish it from theLibyan city with the same name).
Once, Tripoli was also known asal-Fayḥāʾ (الفيحاء), which is a term derived from the Arabic verbfāḥa (فاح) which is used to indicate the diffusion of a scent or smell. Tripoli was once known for its vast orange orchards. During the season of blooming, the pollen of orange flowers was said to be carried on the air, creating a splendid perfume that filled the city and suburbs.[12]
Arabic calligraphic representation of the nickname of Tripoli: "Tripoli, The City of Knowledge and Scholars"
The city of Tripoli is also given the title of "City of Knowledge and Scholars" (Arabic:طرابلس مدينة العلم والعلماء,romanized: Ṭarābulus madīnat al-ʿilm wa-l-ʿulamāʾ).[13][14][15][16]
Evidence of settlement in Tripoli dates back as early as 1400 BC. Tripoli was originally established as a Phoenician colony in the 8th century BC.[17] There, thePhoenicians established a trading station and later, underPersian rule, the city became the center of a confederation of the Phoenician city-states ofSidon,Tyre, andArados Island. UnderHellenistic rule, Tripoli was used as a naval shipyard and the city enjoyed a period of autonomy. It came underRoman rule around 64 BC. The551 Beirut earthquake and tsunami destroyed theByzantine city of Tripoli along with other Mediterranean coastal cities.
Tripoli wasconquered by an Arab Muslim army in 635. DuringUmayyad rule, Tripoli became a commercial and shipbuilding center. It achieved semi-independence underFatimid rule, when it developed into a center of learning. TheCrusaders laid siege to the city at the beginning of the 12th century and were able finally to enter it in 1109. This caused extensive destruction, including the burning of Tripoli's famous library,Dar al-'Ilm (House of Knowledge), with its thousands of volumes. During the Crusaders' rule the city became the capital of theCounty of Tripoli. In 1289, it fell to theMamluks and the old port part of the city was destroyed. A new inland city was then built near the old castle. DuringOttoman rule from 1516 to 1918, it retained its prosperity and commercial importance. Tripoli and all of Lebanon was underFrench mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence.
Many historians reject the presence of anyPhoenician civilization in Tripoli before the 8th (or sometimes 4th) century BC. Others argue that the north–south gradient of Phoenician port establishments on the Lebanese coast indicates an earlier age for the Phoenician Tripoli.
Tripoli has not been extensively excavated because the ancient site lies buried beneath the modern city ofEl Mina. However, a few accidental finds are now in museums. Excavations in El Mina revealed skeletal remains of ancientwolves,eels, andgazelles, part of the ancient southern port quay,grinding mills, different types of columns, wheels, bows, and anecropolis from the end of theHellenistic period. A sounding made in the Crusader castle uncoveredLate Bronze Age,Iron Age, in addition toRoman,Byzantine, andFatimid remains. At the Abou Halka area (at the southern entrance of Tripoli) refuges dating to the early (30,000 years old) and middleStone Age were uncovered.[18]
Ruins in Tripoli
Tripoli became a financial center and main port of northern Phoenicia with sea trade (East Mediterranean and the West), and caravan trade (North Syria and hinterland).
Under theSeleucids, Tripoli gained the right to mint its own coins (112 BC); it was granted autonomy between 104 and 105, which it retained until 64 BC. At the time, Tripoli was a center of shipbuilding andcedar timber trade (like other Phoenician cities).
During theRoman andByzantine period, Tripoli witnessed the construction of important public buildings including a municipal stadium or gymnasium due to the strategic position of the city midway on the imperial coastal highway leading fromAntioch toPtolemais. In addition, Tripoli retained the same configuration of three distinct and administratively independent quarters (Aradians,Sidonians, andTyrians). The territory outside the city was divided between the three quarters.
Tripoli gained in importance as a trading centre for the whole Mediterranean after it was inhabited by theArabs. Tripoli was the port city ofDamascus; the second military port of the Arab Navy, followingAlexandria; a prosperous commercial and shipbuilding center; a wealthy principality under theKutamaIsmaili ShiaBanu Ammaremirs.[19] Legally, Tripoli was part of the jurisdiction of the military province ofDamascus (Jund Dimashq).[20]
The Jewish community of Tripoli traces its roots back to the seventh century, as recounted by theAbbasid-era historianal-Baladhuri. During the caliphate ofRashidun caliphUthman (644–655), the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, settled Jews in Tripoli, fostering amicable relations with the majoritySunni Muslims. However, during the persecution ofdhimmis by the Shi'iteFatimid caliphal-Hakim (996–1021), the synagogue faced conversion into a mosque. Notably, during theSeljuk invasion in the 1070s, Tripoli served as a refuge for Jews from Palestine, as documented inCairo Geniza records.[21]
During that time, Tripoli witnessed the growth of the inland settlement surrounding the "Pilgrim's Mountain" (theCitadel of Tripoli) into a built-up suburb including the main religious monuments of the city such as: The "Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Pilgrim's Mountain" (incorporating the Shiite shrine), the Church of Saint Mary of the Tower, and theCarmelite Church. The state was a major base of operations for the military order of theKnights Hospitaller, who occupied the famous castleKrak Des Chevaliers (today aUNESCO world heritage site). The state ceased to exist in 1289, when it was captured by theEgyptianMamluk sultanQalawun.
The mid-twelfth century earthquake led to the death of many Jews in Tripoli, as noted by Jewish explorerBenjamin of Tudela.[23]
TheMansouri Great Mosque (late 13th century). The arches and courtyard date from the Mamluk period but theminaret is believed to be an earlier Christian structure.[24]Downtown historical TripoliTaynal Mosque entrance
Tripoli was captured bySultan al-Mansur Qalawun from the Crusaders in 1289. The Mamluks destroyed the old city and built a new city 4 km inland from it.[25] About 35 monuments from the Mamluk city have survived to the present day, including mosques, madrasas,khanqahs,hammams (bathhouses), andcaravanserais, many of them built by local Mamluk amirs (princes).[26] The Mamluks did not fortify the city with walls but restored and reused Saint-Gille's citadel.[25]
Tripoli became a major trading port of Syria supplying Europe with candy, loaf and powdered sugar (especially during the latter part of the 14th century). The main products from agriculture and small industry included citrus fruits, olive oil, soap, and textiles (cotton and silk, especiallyvelvet).
TheMamluks formed the ruling class holding main political, military and administrative functions. Arabs formed the population base (religious, industrial, and commercial functions) and the general population included the original inhabitants of the city, immigrants from different parts of the Levant,North Africans who accompaniedQalawun's army during the liberation of Tripoli,Eastern Orthodox Christians, someWestern families, and a minority ofJews. The population size of Mamluk Tripoli is estimated at 20,000–40,000; against 100,000 in each of Damascus and Aleppo.[29]
Mamluk Tripoli witnessed a high rate of urban growth and a fast city development (according to traveler's accounts). It also had poles of growth including the fortress, theGreat Mosque, and the river banks. The city had seven guard towers on the harbor site to defend the inland city, including what still stands today as theLion Tower. During the period the castle of Saint-Gilles was expanded as the Citadel of Mamluk Tripoli. The "Aqueduct of the Prince" was reused to bring water from the Rash'in spring. Several bridges were constructed and the surrounding orchards expanded through marsh drainage. Fresh water was supplied to houses from their roofs.
The urban form of Mamluk Tripoli was dictated mainly by climate, site configuration, defense, and urban aesthetics. The layout of major thoroughfares was set according to prevailing winds and topography. The city had no fortifications, but heavy building construction characterized by compact urban forms, narrow and winding streets for difficult city penetration. Residential areas were bridged over streets at strategic points for surveillance and defense. The city also included many loopholes and narrow slits at street junctions.
The religious and secular buildings of Mamluk Tripoli comprise a fine example of the architecture of that time. The oldest among them were built with stones taken from 12th and 13th-century churches; the characteristics of the architecture of the period are best seen in the mosques andmadrassas, the Islamic schools. It is the madrassas which most attract attention, for they include highly original structures as well as decoration: here a honeycombed ceiling, there a curiously shaped corniche, doorway or moulded window frame. Among the finest is the madrassa al-Burtasiyah, with an elegant façade picked out in black and white stones and a highly decorated lintel over the main door.
Public buildings in Mamluk Tripoli were emphasized through sitting, façade treatment, and street alignment. Well-cut and well-dressed stones (local sandstone) were used as media of construction and for decorative effects on elevations and around openings (theablaq technique of alternating light and dark stone courses). Bearing walls were used as vertical supports. Cross vaults covered most spaces from prayer halls to closed rectangular rooms, to galleries around courtyards. Domes were constructed over conspicuous and important spaces like tomb chambers,mihrab, and covered courtyards. Typical construction details in Mamluk Tripoli included cross vaults with concave grooves meeting in octagonal openings or concave rosettes as well as simple cupolas or ribbed domes. The use of double drums and cornersquinches was commonly used to make the transition from square rooms to round domes.[18]
Decorations in Mamluk buildings concentrated on the most conspicuous areas of buildings:minarets, portals, windows, on the outside, and mihrab,qiblah wall, and floor on the inside. Decorations at the time may be subdivided into structural decoration (found outside the buildings and incorporate the medium of construction itself such as ablaq walls, plain or zigzag moldings, fish scale motifs,joggled lintels or voussoirs, inscriptions, andmuqarnas) and applied decoration (found inside the buildings and include the use of marble marquetry, stucco, and glass mosaic).[18]
Mosques evenly spread with major concentration of madrasas around the Mansouri Great Mosque. Allkhans were located in the northern part of the city for easy accessibility from roads to Syria.Hammams (public baths) were carefully located to serve major population concentrations: one next to the Grand Mosque, the other in the center of the commercial district, and the third in the right-bank settlement.
About 35 monuments from the Mamluk city have survived to the present day, including mosques, madrasas, khanqahs, hammams, and caravanserais, many of them built by local Mamluk amirs.[26] Major buildings in Mamluk Tripoli included six congregational mosques (the Mansouri Great Mosque,al-Aattar,Taynal,al-Uwaysiyat,al-Burtasi, andal-Tawbat Mosques). Sultanal-Ashraf Khalil (r. 1290–93) founded the city's first congregational mosque in memory of his father (Qalawun), in either late 1293 or 1294 (693 AH).[30][31] Six madrasas were later built around the mosque.[31][32][33] The Mamluks did not fortify the city with walls but restored and reused aCrusader citadel on the site.[25] In addition, there were two quarter mosques (Abd al-Wahed andArghoun Shah), and two mosques that were built on empty land (al-Burtasi and al-Uwaysiyat). Other mosques incorporated earlier structures (churches, khans, and shops). Mamluk Tripoli also included 16 madrasas of which four no longer exist (al-Zurayqiyat, al-Aattar, al-Rifaiyah, and al-Umariyat). Six of the madrasas concentrated around the Grand Mosque. Tripoli also included aKhanqah, many secular buildings, five Khans, three hammams (Turkish baths) that are noted for their cupolas. Hammams were luxuriously decorated and the light streaming down from their domes enhances the inner atmosphere of the place.
During theOttoman period, Tripoli became the provincial capital and chief town of theEyalet of Tripoli, encompassing the coastal territory from Byblos toTarsus and the inland Syrian towns ofHoms andHama; the two other eyalets wereAleppo Eyalet, andŞam Eyalet. Until 1612, Tripoli was considered as the port of Aleppo. It also depended on Syrian interior trade and tax collection from mountainous hinterland. Tripoli witnessed a strong presence of French merchants during the 17th and 18th centuries and became under intense inter-European competition for trade. Tripoli was reduced to a sanjak centre in theVilayet of Beirut in 19th century and retained her status until 1918 when it was captured by British forces.
Public works in Ottoman Tripoli included the restoration of theCitadel of Tripoli bySuleiman I, the Magnificent. That was the only major project during 400 years of Ottoman Rule. Later governors brought further modifications to the original Crusader structure used as garrison center and prison. Khan al-Saboun (originally a military barrack) was constructed in the center of the city to control any uprising. Ottoman Tripoli also witnessed the development of the southern entrance of the city and many buildings, such as the al-Muallaq or "hanging" Mosque (1559), al-Tahhan Mosque (early 17th century), and al-Tawbah mosque (Mamluk construction, destroyed by 1612 flood and restored during early Ottoman Period). It also included several secular buildings, such as Khan al-Saboun (early 17th century) and Hammam al-Jadid (1740).
After thepartition of the Ottoman Empire, the French created the territory ofGreater Lebanon, whose borders forcibly separated Tripoli from Syria, a decision that was contested by Tripolitans.[34] Tripoli's population – mostly Sunni Muslims – found itself isolated in this state dominated by Christians, and so Tripoli developed a strong identity as a bastion for Muslim Arab nationalism and anti-imperialism.[34] During this period, protests demanding reunification with Syria were backed by theSyrian National Bloc until the French cut off their support, resulting in a massive 33 day general strike in 1936.[34]
Tripoli has been mired in a period of extended economic and political decline during the period since Lebanon gained its independence. Beirut's rise as Lebanon's dominant port deprived Tripoli of its former preeminence as a trading hub, and globalization eroded the city's ability to compete in manufacturing.[35]Lebanon's civil war, from 1975 to 1990, hit Tripoli hard. On 15 September 1985 intense fighting broke out betweenTawheed al-Islami, aSunni militia which controlled the harbour and was backed by thePLO, and theAlawiteArab Democratic Party’s militia. The ADP were backed by thecommunist Red Knights as well as Syrian special forces. After a week of fighting which saw around 150 killed, 4500 wounded and 200,000 people leaving their homes, the Syrians brokered a truce which involved theSyrian army occupying five key positions and the removal of heavy weapons.[36] The truce broke down on 27 September and Tahweed al-Islami positions were bombarded fromSSNP and Syrian artillery positions in the surrounding hills. On 1 October, following anIranian diplomatic intervention, Tahweed agreed to surrender their heavy weapons and Syrian troops, on 6 October, were deployed throughout the city. A further 350 people had been killed and hundreds more wounded.[37]
The Syrian army remained in the city for almost three decades until 2005:
As a majority Sunni city with a growing strain of indigenousIslamistmilitancy, Tripoli suffered some of the Syrians’ cruelest predations at a time when then-PresidentHafez al-Assad was engaged in the brutal suppression of Syria’s ownMuslim Brotherhood.[35]
Wartime violence and instability triggered waves of emigration and capital flight. It also left Tripoli increasingly isolated, not least due to the dismantling ofLebanon's rail network and the abandonment of theTripoli railway station. The city, moreover, saw little of the post-war reconstruction funding that Prime MinisterRafic Hariri ushered into Lebanon, with an overwhelming focus on the capital.[35]
In the years since, living conditions in Tripoli have continued to decline. In 2016, theUnited Nation's Human Settlements Program estimated that 58% of Tripoli's Lebanese residents lived in poverty.[38] That already high figure preceded Lebanon's 2019financial crisis, which has ratcheted up poverty and food insecurity.[39]
Tripoli's stagnation is attributable, in part, to the city's dysfunctional politics, in which a fragmented array of Sunni political figures (such asSaad Hariri,Najib Mikati,Faisal Karami, andAshraf Rifi) vie for influence through competing networks of patronage: "No single leader has been able to assert dominance, leaving city politics to devolve into chaos."[40]
Tripoli stands as one of Lebanon's less stable cities, marked by recurrentsectarian tensions among its communities, notably the Sunni and Alawite populations. The impact of theSyrian civil war, beginning in 2011, had extended into Tripoli, where Alawites aligned with the former Assad regime, and Sunnis supported the opposition, resulting in frequent and intense clashes between the two groups.
Tripoli has ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) with mild wet winters and very dry, hot summers. Temperatures are moderated throughout the year due to the warm Mediterranean current coming from Western Europe. Therefore, temperatures are warmer in the winter by around 10 °C or 18 °F and cooler in the summer by around 7 °C or 12.6 °F compared to the inland parts of Lebanon. Although snow is an extremely rare event that only occurs around once every ten years, hail is common and occurs fairly regularly in the winter. Rainfall is concentrated in the winter months, with the summer typically being very dry.
Climate data for Tripoli, Lebanon (elevation: 6 metres or 20 feet, atEl Mina)
Tripoli has many offshore islands. ThePalm Islands Nature Reserve, or the Rabbits' Island, is the largest of the islands with an area of 20 ha (49 acres). The name "Araneb" or Rabbits comes from the great numbers of rabbits that were kept on the island during the time of the French mandate early in the 20th century. It is now a nature reserve for green turtles, rare birds and rabbits. Declared as a protected area byUNESCO in 1992, camping, setting fires or other depredation is forbidden. In addition to its scenic landscape, the Palm Island is also a cultural heritage site. Evidence for human occupation, dated back to the Crusader period, was uncovered during 1973 excavations by the General Directorate of Antiquities. The Bakar Islands, also known as Abdulwahab Island, were leased to the company of Adel and Khiereddine Abdulwahab as a shipyard, during the Ottoman imperial rule and which is still a ship and marine contractor. It was also known as St Thomas Island during the Crusades.
The island on the opposite side of Palms Island, which is a large flat sandy beach, isRamkin Island. This island is largely made up of cliffs and rocks.
TheCitadel of Tripoli is also known as the Castle of Saint-Gilles (Arabic:قلعة سان جيلQalʻat Sān Jīl;French:Château Saint-Gilles), in reference toRaymond de Saint-Gilles, who dominated the city in 1102 and commanded a fortress to be built in which he named Mont Pèlerin (Mount Pilgrim). The original castle was burnt down in 1289, and rebuilt again on numerous occasions and was rebuilt in 1307–08 by EmirEssendemir Kurgi.
Later the citadel was rebuilt in part by theOttoman Empire which can be seen today, with its massive Ottoman gateway, over which is an engraving fromSüleyman the Magnificent who had ordered the restoration. In the early 19th century, the Citadel was extensively restored by the Ottoman Governor of TripoliMustafa Agha Barbar.
The Clock Tower is one of the most iconic monuments in Tripoli. The tower is located in Al-Tell square, and was gifted to the city by theOttoman SultanAbdul Hamid II.[35] It was erected in 1906 to celebrate the 30th year of Abdulhamid II of the Ottoman Empire, like theJaffa Clock Tower in Israel and many others throughout the Empire.
The Clock Tower underwent a renovation in 1992, and now the clock tower is again operational.
When Tripoli was visited by Ibn Batutah in 1355, he described the newly rebuilt Mamluk city. "Traversed by water-channels and full of’ gardens", he writes, "the houses are newly built. The sea lies two leagues distant, and the ruins of the old town are seen on the sea-shore. It was taken by the Franks, but al-Malik ath-Tháhir (Qala’un) retook it from them, and then laid the place in ruins and built the present town. There are fine baths here.’’
The hammams built in Tripoli by the early Mamluk governors were splendid edifices and many of them survive to the present. Some of the best known are:
Abed
Izz El-Din
Hajeb
Jadid
An-Nouri, built 1333 by the Mamluk governor Nur El-Din, is located in the vicinity of the Grand Mosque.[44]
The International Fair of Tripoli site,[45] formally known as the Rachid Karami International Exhibition Center, is a complex of buildings designed by the Brazilian architectOscar Niemeyer who was commissioned for the project in 1962. The site was built for a World's Fair event to be held in the city, but construction was halted in 1975 due to the outbreak of the Lebanese civil war, and never resumed. The site contains 15 partly-completed Niemeyer buildings within an approximate 75.6 ha (187-acre) area near Tripoli's southern entrance.[46]
"More recent years have seen the fairground undermined by a mixture of periodic instability and nonsensical administrative procedures that make it virtually impossible to put the facility to use. If the city needed any more physical metaphors for decay, the fairground is flanked by a Quality Inn that is literally falling apart, and whose ownership is years overdue on payment to the site’s administrators."[35]
Many churches in Tripoli are a reminder of the history of the city. These churches also show the diversity ofChristians in Lebanon and particularly in Tripoli:
Tripoli is richly supplied with mosques, In every district of the city there is a mosque, many of which are small. During the Mamluk era, there was an extensive mosque-building program to bolster the new Islamic regime and many still remain until today.
Tripoli has a large number of schools of all levels, public and private. It is also served by several universities within the city limits as well as in its urban area.
The universities in Tripoli and its metro area are:
Tripoli stands out as one of Lebanon's economically poorest cities, marked by a substantial division between the affluent and poor residents. The city grapples with elevated unemployment rates, and certain impoverished neighborhoods have become strongholds for Islamist and other radical factions.[2]
Tripoli, while once economically comparable to Beirut, has declined in recent decades.[5] Organisations such as the Business Incubation Association in Tripoli (BIAT) are currently trying to revive traditional export businesses such as furniture production, artisanal copper goods, soaps, as well as to expand new industries such as ICT offshore services and new technological applications.[49]
The Tripoli Special Economic Zone (TSEZ) was established in 2008 to provide exemptions from many taxes and duties for investment projects that have more than $300,000 of capital and more than half their workers from Lebanon.[50] It is a 55-hectare site adjacent to the Port of Tripoli.[51]
Recently, a Tripoli development plan called "Tripoli Vision 2020" has been formulated and supported by a number of advisory councils including influential key government officials and prominent businessmen in the city. The goal of the project is to provides a comprehensive framework consisting of promoting investment, investing, training, re-skilling, talent placement and output promotion to reinvigorate the city's economy. The Tripoli Vision 2020 was sponsored by the Prime MinisterSaad Hariri Office and the Tripoli MPs Joint Office with the comprehensive study conducted by Samir Chreim of SCAS Inc.[52]
Tripoli embodies Lebanon's extreme wealth inequality: Although it is one of the country's most concentrated centers of poverty, it is also the hometown of several extravagantly wealthy politicians, notably including Najib Mikati,Taha Mikati andMohammad Safadi who are accused of accumulating their wealth by embezzling government funds.[53]
The khan, built around a square courtyard decorated with a fountain, houses soap making workshops and shops. At the end of the 15th century, the governor of TripoliYusuf Sayfa Pasha established Khan Al Saboun (the hotel of soap traders). This market was finished at the beginning of the 16th century, the last days of the Mamluk rule. The raw material used for these kinds of soap is olive oil.
Lebanese public opinion and Lebanese authorities rarely react to minoroil spills frommerchant ships calling at Lebanese ports. Being without inspection, and discharging close to the shore,oil tankers pollute the coast.[55] These pollutions have a direct effect on the marine life.
^abcdNajem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad; Najem, Tom (2021).Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 317.ISBN978-1-5381-2043-9.
^Najem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021).Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 317.ISBN978-1-5381-2043-9.
^abcSaliba, R., Jeblawi, S., and Ajami, G.,Tripoli the Old City: Monument Survey – Mosques and Madrasas; A Sourcebook of Maps and Architectural Drawings, Beirut: American University of Beirut Publications, 1995.[page needed]
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^Tadmouri, O. AS.,Lubnan min al-fath al-islami hatta sukut al-dawla al-'umawiyya (13–132 H/ 634–750 CE): Silsilat Dirasat fi Tarih AlSahel AlShami, Tripoli, 1990. Arabic.
^abcLuz, Nimrod (2002). "Tripoli Reinvented: A Case of Mamluk Urbanization". In Lev, Yaacov (ed.).Towns and material culture in the medieval Middle East. Brill. pp. 53–71.ISBN9004125434.
^abMahamid, Hatim (2009). "Mosques as higher educational institutions in Mamluk Syria".Journal of Islamic Studies.20 (2):188–212.doi:10.1093/jis/etp002.
^abcGade, Tina (24 November 2022).Sunni City: Tripoli from Islamist Utopia to the Lebanese 'Revolution'. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–37.ISBN9781009222754.
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