The Ottoman Empire and its vassals in its peak during the late 16th century during the regime of Murad III
TheOttoman Empire had a number oftributary andvassal states throughout its history. Its tributary states would regularly sendtribute to the Ottoman Empire, which was understood by both states as also being a token of submission. In exchange for certain privileges, its vassal states were obligated to render support to the Ottoman Empire when called upon to do so. Some of its vassal states were also tributary states.
Theseclient states, many of which could be described by modern terms such assatellite states orpuppet states, were usually on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire undersuzerainty of theSublime Porte, over which direct control was not established. The Ottoman Empire maintained relationships with various states, some of which were under their direct rule (provinces) and others that were vassal states or tributary states, meaning they recognized Ottoman suzerainty but retained a degree of autonomy.
Ottomans first demanded only a small yearly tribute from vassal princes, as a token of their submission. They later demanded that a vassal prince's son should be held as hostage, that the prince should come to the Palace once a year and swear allegiance, and that he should send auxiliary troops on the sultan's campaigns. Vassal princes were required to treat the sultan's friends and enemies as their own. If the vassal failed in these duties, his lands would be declared asdarülharb (lit. territory of war) open to the raids of theGhazis.[1] The Ottomans considered as their vassals all states whose rulers agreed to pay tribute. Even the Habsburgs fell into this category after Ferdinand I (1526–64) agreed to buy peace from the Ottomans in 1533. In fact, the Habsburgs were tributary (vassal?) in name only, as was Ragusa. Transylvania depended much more on the goodwill of the Ottomans than did those ruling in either Vienna or Ragusa, and the so-called Danubian Principalities, (Moldavia and Wallachia) were indeed vassal states in the strictest legal sense of the term.[2][3] The territories the Ottomans had conquered were either administered as provinces or transformed into vassal states,[4] such examples as Fezzan, which was an independent state conquered and turned into a vassal state. The Ottomans established a pattern of government within their own territories or principalities that were incorporated gradually through tribute and military alliance before there full annexation.[5] The Ottomans would give local dynasty that would recognize themselves as vassals, particularly in border zones,[6] this policy allowed local ruler to have local authority exchange for tribute such as military support and coinage, public rituals such as naming the sultan in khutba,[7] while recognize the ottomans as head ruler, and serve as buffer zones.
Some states within the eyalet system includedsancakbeys who were local to theirsanjak or who inherited their position (e.g.,Samtskhe, someKurdish sanjaks), areas that were permitted to elect their own leaders (e.g., areas ofAlbania,Epirus, andMorea (Mani Peninsula) was nominally a part of Aegean Islands Province but Maniotbeys were tributary vassals of the Porte, orde facto independent eyalets[8] (e.g., the Barbaresque 'regencies'Algiers,[9]Tunisia,Tripolitania in the Maghreb, and later theKhedivate of Egypt). Egypt specifically had a unique case, Muhammad Ali Pasha became its Ottoman Governor but transformed himself to be its de facto ruler. He went to war with the Ottoman Sultan twice and established a dynasty that would rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952, even after the Ottoman sovereignty ended in 1914.
Outside the eyalet system were states such asMoldavia,Wallachia andTransylvania which paid tribute to the Ottomans and over which the Porte had the right to nominate or depose the ruler, garrison rights, and foreign policy control. They were considered by the Ottomans as part ofDar al-'Ahd, thus they were allowed to preserve their self-rule, and were not under Islamic law, like the empire proper; Ottoman subjects, or Muslims for that matter, were not allowed to settle the land permanently or to buildmosques.[10]
Some states, such asRagusa, paid tribute for the entirety of their territory and recognizedOttoman suzerainty.
Others, such as theSharif of Mecca, recognized Ottoman suzerainty but were subsidized by the Porte. The Ottomans were also expected to protect theSharifate militarily – as suzerains overMecca andMedina, the Ottoman sultans were meant to ensure the protection of theHajj andUmrah pilgrimages and safe passage of pilgrims. TheAmir al-hajj was a military officer appointed by the Sultanate to ensure this.
During the nineteenth century, as Ottoman territory receded, several breakaway states from the Ottoman Empire had the status of vassal states (e.g. they paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire), before gaining complete independence. They were, however, de facto independent, including having their own foreign policy and their own independent military. This was the case with the principalities ofSerbia,Romania andBulgaria
Some states paid tribute for possessions that were legally bound to the Ottoman Empire but not possessed by the Ottomans, such as theHabsburgs for parts ofRoyal Hungary orVenice forZante.
There were also secondary vassals such as theNogai Horde and theCircassians who were (at least nominally) vassals of thekhans ofCrimea, or someBerbers andArabs who paid tribute to the North African beylerbeyis, who were in turn Ottoman vassals themselves.Other tribute from foreign powers included a kind of "protection money" sometimes called ahorde tax (similar to theDanegeld) paid byTsardom of Russia or thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was usually paid to the Ottoman vassal khans ofCrimea rather than to the Ottoman sultan directly.
Tsardom of Russia (1547–1783) TheCrimean khanate did severalraids and Russia did pay them tribute occasionally. Technically (but not de facto), Russia was a tributary of the Crimean khanate as the remaining successor of theGolden Horde, which was hard to defeat until about the 17th century[49][50][51][52]
Funjistan: Some sources[which?] suggest thatAmara may have agreed to nominal tributary status or diplomatic recognition in exchange for autonomy. This allowedSennar to remain effectively independent while giving theOttomans a sense of regional control. (1517-1533/4)[citation needed]
Tuareg Confederations (semi-vassal relations)Tuareg tribes in the central Sahara (e.g.,Kel Ajjer,Kel Ahaggar) paid tribute or acknowledged Ottoman Tripoli's authority intermittently.[69][70]
Sanjak of Benghazi (Bingazi Sancağı): autonomous sanjak. Formerly in the vilayet of Tripoli, but after 1875 dependent directly on the ministry of the interior at Constantinople[71]
Adal Sultanate[76][77]Ahmed Grañ agreed to formally recognizeOttoman suzerainty, pay 100,000 okkas of gold to the sultan, and send tribute worth another 2,000 okkas of gold annually to the Ottoman governor inZebid, Mustafa al-Neshar. (1527–1577)
Hilaalee dynasty ofThe Maldives (1565?–1737?–1900?)[91] in historical sources, such as Ali Macar Reis’ atlas from 1567, Katib Çelebi's 17th Century magnum opus ‘Cihannüma’, cartographic depictions by Mahmud Raif Effendi (1803), accounts documenting the sporadic anchoring of Ottoman vessels in Maldivian ports, a well-documented tradition tracing back to the 16th century, the fact that during the latter part of the 16th century, the Maldives functioned as a vassal state under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire.[92]
Kurdish emirates (16th–19th centuries) peacefully vassalized after theOttoman-Iraqi War, when Kurds were allowed their own state. MostKurdish Emirates was in bad condition an agreed to become an Ottoman tributary.[105]
Khedivate of Egypt (Mısır) 1867–1914de jure under Ottoman suzerainty, in effect fully autonomous, andfrom 1882 under British occupation; broke away from Ottoman suzerainty upon Ottoman entry intoWorld War I on the side of theCentral Powers and reformed as the "Sultanate of Egypt" which was declared aBritish protectorate on 5 November 1914, the day when Britain and France declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Britain also formally annexedCyprus (under British administration since theCyprus Convention in 1878, but nominally still an Ottoman territory) until 5 November 1914.
Principality of Samos (Sisam) 1835–1912: established as an autonomous tributary principality under a Christian Prince; annexed to Greece during theFirst Balkan War
Eastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli) (1878–1885) established by theTreaty of Berlin on 13 July 1878 as an autonomous province, in a personal union with the tributary Principality of Bulgaria on 6 September 1885 but remainedde jure under Ottoman suzerainty; annexed by Bulgaria on 5 October 1908.
Cyprus (Kıbrıs) (1878–1914) established British administration under Ottoman suzerainty with theCyprus Convention of 4 June 1878; annexed byBritain on 5 November 1914, upon Ottoman entry intoWorld War I.
Cretan State (Girit) (1898–1912/13) established as an internationally supervised tributary state headed by a Christian governor; in 1908 the Cretan parliament unilaterally declared union with Greece; the island was occupied byGreece in 1912, andde jure annexed in 1913
^Romanian historian Florin Constantiniu points out that, on crossing intoWallachia, foreign travelers used to hear church bells in every village, which were forbidden by Islamic law in the Ottoman empire.Constantiniu, Florin (2006).O istorie sinceră a poporului român [A sincere history of the Romanian people] (IV ed.). Univers Enciclopedic Gold. pp. 115–118.
^Özcan, Azmi; Pan-Islamism, the Ottoman Empire, Indian Muslims, and England (1877–1914), TDV İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi Publications (2005)
^abCasale, Giancarlo, Two Examples of Ottoman Discovery Literature from the mid-Sixteenth Century
^Reid, Anthony, The Ottomans in Southeast Asia, Asia Research Institute, Working Paper Series No. 36, February 2005, pp. 9–13
^Reid, Anthony, The Ottomans in Southeast Asia, Asia Research Institute, Working Paper Series No. 36, February 2005, pp. 9, 14
^Göksoy, İ. H., Ottoman-Aceh Relations according to the Turkish Sources, First International Conference on Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies, 23–27 February 2007, Banda Aceh, Indonesia
^abcUğur, Hatice, A Sultanate in Ottoman Africa: Zanzibar, Istanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2005
^Uçar, Ahmet, Ottomans in South Africa / A 140-Year Legacy, Tez Yayınları (2000)
^Ottoman–Turkestan Relations with Documents (16th–20th Centuries) – Ankara: Başbakanlık Basımevi, 2004. – XX, (Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, General Directorate of State Archives, Ottoman Archives Department; publication no. 70)
^Buğra, Mehmet Emin, The History of Eastern Turkestan. pp. 336
^Âtıf, Mehmet, The History of Kashgar, Kırıkkale, 1998, pp. 296
^Wawrzyniak, Krzyzstof Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations in the Sixteenth Century, The Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent University, Ankara, June 2003
^"Index".The War Library. Retrieved23 September 2025.
^Friedrich, Karin (2011).Brandenburg-Prussia, 1466–1806: The Rise of a Composite State. Studies in European History. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 19–20.ISBN9780230356962.
^Aḥmīda, ʿAlī ʿAbd-al-Laṭīf (2009).The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition. SUNY Series in the Social and Economic History of the Middle East Ser. Albany: State University of New York Press.ISBN978-1-4384-2893-2.
^Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com Laghouat | Oasis City, Saharan Region, Algeria.{{cite web}}:External link in|last= (help);Missing or empty|title= (help);Missing or empty|url= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^The Ottoman State’s Relations with the Muslim Emirate of Harar and Their Effect on the Rapprochement with the Christian Abyssinian (Ethiopian) Empire”, Pax Ottomana Studies in Memoriam, Prof. Dr. Nejat GÖYÜNÇ, Sota-Yeni Türkiye Publications, Haarlem-Ankara 2001, pp. 443-464
^Aboona, Hirmis (2008).Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Amherst: Cambria Press.ISBN978-1-60497-583-3.
^Riedlmayer, András, and Victor Ostapchuk.Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj and the Porte: A Document from the Ottoman Archives. Harvard Ukrainian Studies 8.3/4 (1984): 453–73. JSTOR. Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. Web.
^Kármán, Gábor, and Lovro Kunčević, eds.The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Print. p.137
^Kármán, Gábor, and Lovro Kunčević, eds.The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Print. p.142
^Magocsi, Paul Robert.History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. 2nd ed. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2010. Print. p.369
Gábor Kármán (ed.),Tributaries and Peripheries of the Ottoman Empire, BRILL, 2020.
Ahmad Al-Sharif, The Sahara: A Political and Economic History (1979)
J. Despois, Les Touaregs du Hoggar (1957) (18th–19th centuries)
Books on the Ottoman Expansion Area
Ahmet Akgündüz, Unknown Ottoman, Istanbul 1999
Ahmet Kavas, From Past to Present Africa, Istanbul 2005
Ahmet Kavas, Ottoman–Africa Relations, TASAM Publications, Istanbul 2006
Hatice Uğur, A Sultanate in Ottoman Africa: Zanzibar, Istanbul: Küre Publications, 2005 [Link]
Türkiye Newspaper, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire
1970 Hayat Encyclopedia
Erhan Afyoncu, The Ottoman Empire with Questions
İlber Ortaylı, The Ottomans
From the works of Ahmet Kavas:
“The Dominance and Influence of the Ottoman Empire on the African Continent”, Yeni Türkiye Journal Ottoman Special Issue, I, 421-430 (2000). English translation of the same article. “The Dominance and Influence of the Ottoman Empire on the African Continent”, The Great Ottoman, Turkish Civilisation, Ankara 2000, I, p. 248-258
“The Relations of the Ottoman Empire with the Muslim Emirate of Harar and Its Effect on the Rapprochement with the Christian Abyssinian (Ethiopian) Empire”, Pax Ottomana Studies in Memoriam Prof. Dr. Nejat GÖYÜNÇ, Sota-Yeni Türkiye Publications, Haarlem-Ankara 2001, p. 443-464
“The Establishment of the Gat District in the Great Sahara and Ottoman–Tuareg Relations”, Journal of Islamic Studies, 3, 171-196 (1999)
“Ottoman–Tibu Relations: The Establishment of the Reşâde (Chad) and Kavar (Niger) Districts in the Great Sahara”, Journal of Islamic Studies, 4, 69-104 (2000)
“The Islamic Policy Implemented by France in North and West Africa: The Issue of Rejecting the Call for Jihad Published by Sultan Reşad”, Religious Studies, 6, 23-50 (April 2000)
“The Last Bilad al-Sudan State Founded by Rabih b. Fazlullah Before the Colonisation of Africa and His Struggle with France”, Ottoman Studies, XX, 9-35 (2000)
“Ottoman Sovereignty on the East African Coast: The Position of the Zeila Port in Northern Somalia (1265-1334/1849-1916)”, Journal of Islamic Studies, issue: 5, 2001, p. 109-134
“A Poor Field in Turkish Academic Research: Ottoman Africa”, Journal of Turkish Studies Literature (Talid), Vol: 1, No: 2, 2003, Foundation for Science and Art Turkish Studies Center, Istanbul, p. 513-528
“The Relations of the Ottoman Empire with the Indigenous People in North Africa”, International Congress on Science and Education in the Ottoman World, Istanbul, 12–15 April 1999
.svg)
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (PLC) (1576–1586): briefly considered a vassal/tributary state under the OttomanPrincipality of Transylvania TheOttoman Empire, by placing theKingdom of Poland under its protection in 1576, extended its influence into the lands ofBelarus, northernUkraine,Latvia,Lithuania, andEstonia, reaching as far as theBaltic Sea.[22] AfterHenryk II Walezy of the FrenchHouse of Valois fled to France to be crowned,Sokollu Mehmed Pasha intervened in the succession disputes in Poland and hadStephen Báthory, the voivode ofTransylvania, which at the time was subject to the Ottoman Empire, elected as "King of Poland." Toward the end of his reign, Ottoman influence weakened, and during the rule ofSigismund III Vasa, who came to the throne in 1586, it disappeared completely.[23][2][24] It paid annual tribute to the Ottomans afterTreaty of Buchach (1672–1676)[25][26]
Duchy of Prussia (1576–1586)[27]
Duchy of Livonia (1576–1586)[28]
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1576–1586, 1672–1676)[29]
Byzantine Empire (1371 – 20 February 1403, 1424 – 6 April 1453)[30]
Empire of Trebizond (1456–1461)
Lordship of Prilep (1371–1395)
Dejanović noble family (1371–1395)
Principality of Wallachia (Eflâk Prensliği), 1396–1397, 1417–1861 with some interruptions.[31]
Principality of Moravian Serbia (1389–1402)
Despotate of Serbia (1402–1459)
Second Bulgarian Empire (14th century)
Principality of Moldavia (Boğdan Prensliği), 1456–1457, 1503–1861 with some interruptions.[31]
Republic of Ragusa (1458–1808)(de facto 1458–1699, de jure 1699–1808)[32][33]
Republic of Venice (1475–1603)[34][35]
Holy Roman Empire (HRE) (1533–1540?–1606), tributary state[36][37][30]
Archduchy of Austria (1547–1604, 1664)[38][39]
Kingdom of Bohemia, briefly in 1620 underFrederick I of Bohemia[40]
Crimean Khanate (Kırım Hanlığı), 1478–1774
Grand Principality of Moscow 1521 during theCrimean invasion of Russia[41][42][43]
Kazan Khanate (Kazan Hanlığı), 1523: Kazan briefly conquered by Crimean Khanate,Sahib I Giray enthroned as Khan[44][45]
Budjak Horde (?–1807)
Circassian principalities and tribes[46]
Kabarda (?–1739)
Yedisan (1684–1760s)
Lesser Nogai Horde
Tsardom of Russia (1547–1783) TheCrimean khanate did severalraids and Russia did pay them tribute occasionally. Technically (but not de facto), Russia was a tributary of the Crimean khanate as the remaining successor of theGolden Horde, which was hard to defeat until about the 17th century[49][50][51][52]
Funjistan: Some sources[which?] suggest thatAmara may have agreed to nominal tributary status or diplomatic recognition in exchange for autonomy. This allowedSennar to remain effectively independent while giving theOttomans a sense of regional control. (1517-1533/4)[citation needed]
Ma'n dynasty (1516–1697)
Chehab dynasty (1697–1842)
Sharifate of Mecca (1517–1803)
Emirate of Asir
Emirate of Jabal Shammar (1836–1921)[62][63]
Emirate of Najd (1836–1918)[64][65][66]
Regency of Algiers (1516–1830).svg)
Kingdom of Tlemcen (1551–1556)[68]
Ottoman Tripolitania
Ottoman Tunisia (1574–1881)
Husainid dynasty (1613 or 1705–1881)
Awlad Muhammad (Fezzan) (1574–1812)
Sennusia (De facto vassal)[citation needed]
Karamanids
Candar dynasty (1402–1440–1461)
Beylik of Sarukhan (1390–1412)
Pashalik of Scutari (1757–1831)
League of Prizren (1878–1881)
Zaporozhian Sich De jure vassal (1711–1734)
Shirvan (early 1724–1725)[75]
Adal Sultanate[76][77]Ahmed Grañ agreed to formally recognizeOttoman suzerainty, pay 100,000 okkas of gold to the sultan, and send tribute worth another 2,000 okkas of gold annually to the Ottoman governor inZebid, Mustafa al-Neshar. (1527–1577)
Eastern Africa/ KilwaSwahilli (Mogadishu down toMombasa and south-eastern African coast from the Zambezi[78][79])(1567–late 1580 to early 1600)[80][81]
Duchy of the Archipelago (1537,[86] 1565[86]–1579)
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526–1551, 1556–1570)[87]
Samtskhe-Saatabago (atabegate) (1500–1625)
Kingdom of Imereti (1555–1804)
Principality of Svaneti (1555–1804)[88]
Principality of Mingrelia (1557–1803)
Principality of Mingrelia (1568–1803)
Principality of Guria (1614–1810)[89]
Principality of Abkhazia (1555–1810)
Kingdom of Kartli (1578–1612, 1723–1736)
Kingdom of Kakheti (1578–1612, 1723 –1736)
Kanem–Bornu Empire (1580–1603) Borno was dependent nominally to the Ottoman Empire.[90]
Hilaalee dynasty ofThe Maldives (1565?–1737?–1900?)[91] in historical sources, such as Ali Macar Reis’ atlas from 1567, Katib Çelebi's 17th Century magnum opus ‘Cihannüma’, cartographic depictions by Mahmud Raif Effendi (1803), accounts documenting the sporadic anchoring of Ottoman vessels in Maldivian ports, a well-documented tradition tracing back to the 16th century, the fact that during the latter part of the 16th century, the Maldives functioned as a vassal state under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire.[92]
Principality of Transylvania (Erdel), 1570–1699 with some interruptions
Sultanate of Aceh, 1569–1903[93][94][95][96]
Saadi sultanate(1576–1592)[97]
Emirate of Harar (1782?–1875?, 1875–1887) was a subject state of theKhedivate of Egypt/Ottoman Empire[98][99][100][101][102]
Principality of Montenegro (Karadağ Prensliği), (1696–1878)
Cossack Hetmanate:Protectorate andSanjak of theOttoman Empire (1655–1663)[106][107] and (June 1669 – 1685)[108][109] TheOttomans continued to recognize some use for theCossack vassal state and appointedlurii as Hatmanate.[110]
Principality of Upper Hungary (modern-daySlovakia), 1682–1685 underImre Thököly[111]
Sultanate of Darfur[112] (1915)
Septinsular Republic (1800–1807)
Principality of Serbia (Sırbistan Prensliği) (1815–1878de facto independence, 1867de jure independence 1878) [Russian empire]
Al-Muntafiq (1530–1918)
United Principalities of Romania (Romanya Prensliği) 1862–1877
Yettishar (1865–1877)
Khedivate of Egypt (Mısır) 1867–1914de jure under Ottoman suzerainty, in effect fully autonomous, andfrom 1882 under British occupation; broke away from Ottoman suzerainty upon Ottoman entry intoWorld War I on the side of theCentral Powers and reformed as the "Sultanate of Egypt" which was declared aBritish protectorate on 5 November 1914, the day when Britain and France declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Britain also formally annexedCyprus (under British administration since theCyprus Convention in 1878, but nominally still an Ottoman territory) until 5 November 1914.
Uganda (1872–1882)[113]
Principality of Bulgaria (Bulgaristan Prensliği) (1878–1908) de facto independent.
Principality of Samos (Sisam) 1835–1912: established as an autonomous tributary principality under a Christian Prince; annexed to Greece during theFirst Balkan War
Eastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli) (1878–1885) established by theTreaty of Berlin on 13 July 1878 as an autonomous province, in a personal union with the tributary Principality of Bulgaria on 6 September 1885 but remainedde jure under Ottoman suzerainty; annexed by Bulgaria on 5 October 1908.
Cyprus (Kıbrıs) (1878–1914) established British administration under Ottoman suzerainty with theCyprus Convention of 4 June 1878; annexed byBritain on 5 November 1914, upon Ottoman entry intoWorld War I.
Qatar (Katar) (1872–1913)
Cretan State (Girit) (1898–1912/13) established as an internationally supervised tributary state headed by a Christian governor; in 1908 the Cretan parliament unilaterally declared union with Greece; the island was occupied byGreece in 1912, andde jure annexed in 1913