| Politics of theRoman Republic | ||||||||||
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| 509 – 27 BC | ||||||||||
| Constitution and development | ||||||||||
| Magistrates and officials | ||||||||||
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| Senate | ||||||||||
| Assemblies | ||||||||||
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Thetribal assembly (Latin:comitia tributa) was one of the popular assemblies ofancient Rome, responsible, along with the plebeian council, for the passage of most Roman laws in the middle and late republics. They were also responsible for the elections of a number of junior magistracies:aediles andquaestors especially.
It organised citizens, by the middle republic, into thirty-fiveartificial tribes which were assigned by geography. The composition of the tribes packed the urban poor into four tribes out of the thirty-five. The requirement that citizens vote in person also discriminated against the rural poor who were not able to travel to Rome.
Each tribe possessed an internal structure and a single vote in the assembly, regardless of the number of citizens belonging to that tribe, which was determined by a majority of the citizens of that tribe present at a vote. Legislative proposals in the assembly as a whole passed when a majority of tribes voted in favour; elections similarly continued until a majority of tribes approved of sufficient candidates that all posts were filled.
The tribal assembly and theplebeian council were organised identically. What differed between them was the presiding magistrate, with the tribal assembly convened byconsuls,praetors, oraediles and the plebeian council convened byplebeian tribunes. After thelex Hortensia in 287 BC endowed the plebeian council with full legislative powers, the two assemblies became practically identical.[1]
Thecomitia tributa in the classical republic was responsible for the election ofmilitary tribunes,quaestors, andcurule aediles. It also had the power to enact legislation and try non-capital cases.[2] Because it was simpler than thecomitia centuriata, by the middle and late republic, the tribal assembly had become the main form of legislative assembly.[3][4]
Like the othercomitia the tribal assembly, as the embodiment of the people, was sovereign.[5] However, the fact that the business brought before it was entirely controlled by the aristocratic magistrates – the people had noright of initiative and could only vote on proposals brought by those magistrates – meant that the people had a largely passive role in the legislative process.[6]
Like the other comitia, the tribes had to be summoned to vote by a magistrate with the right to do so (ius agendi cum populo) on a day on which it was religiously permitted to summon an assembly (adies comitialis) and after favourable auspices in an inauguratedtemplum.[2]
The tribes met for legislative and judicial votes in thecomitium, a meeting place before thesenatorialcuria in the forum that could fit between three and four thousand people, prior to 145 BC.[7][8][9] Afterwards it met in theForum or onCapitoline Hill. Electionsc. 133 BC occurred on the Capitoline but sometime afterwards, tribal elections were instead conducted on thecampus Martius.[10][11] Such changes may have been related to the then-ongoing movement towards secret ballot rather than oral voting.[12]
After some speeches by the presiding magistrate and those he invited, the magistrate ordered citizens to reassemble by tribe.[13] The tribes then voted without any deliberation; any public debate occurred prior to the legislativecomitia through duellingcontio where magistrates spoke to an unorganised crowd urging them one way or the other on upcoming legislation.[14] Citizens identified themselves to tribal officials (tribules). Prior to the introduction of the secret ballot – in various years between 139 and 107[15] – an official would have received the votes orally; afterwards officials counted wax tablets deposited in turns and returned the results to the presiding magistrate.[16]
Prior to the last quarter of the second century – perhaps 139 BC with thelex Gabinia – the tribes voted sequentially. However, afterwards, they voted simultaneously with the results then announced sequentially.[17] Under the sequential system, a first tribe was selected by lot from among the thirty-one rural tribes.[18] Scholars disagree as to whether theprincipium acted as an omen of results like thecenturia praerogativa in the centuriate assembly.[19] Voting then continued either by lot or by a fixed order of tribes thereafter,[17][20] with the results of each tribe announced as aguide for future voters.[21] When voting became simultaneous, each tribe's vote was announced in a random order.[22]
Application of the lot made the order in which an electoral candidate received votes important, making electoral results partially determined by chance, since all remaining votes were discarded once all posts were filled.[17] The effect of the lot was such that candidates who were more popular among the tribal blocs could be passed over by another candidate who reached a majority more rapidly.[22] In elections, the results became binding when the presiding magistrates completed the task of creating their successors by swearing in the winners.[23]
Turnout in tribal assemblies could at times be extremely low. Cicero, inPro Sestio, mentions that if a tribe had no voters turn up at all, citizens in other tribes could be transferred by lot to vote for the empty tribe instead.[24] Regardless, estimates of the size of the voting spaces imply maximum voter turnout between 0.66 and 1.85%.[25]
In the historical period the Roman republic had three kinds of citizen assemblies: thecuriate,centuriate, and tribal assemblies.[26] Thecuriae were likely organised by birth; thecenturiae were organised instead by wealth (and later incorporated some tribal organisation); thetribus were organised by residence.[27]
The Livian narrative indicates that the first assembly organised on a tribal basis was the plebeianconcilium in 471 BC.[28] The tribal assembly – contraconcilium plebis, see§ Distinction from the plebeian council below, – came into existence some time before 447 BC,[2] when the assembly is first attested as electingquaestors.[29][30] Before the conquest of Veiic. 396 BC there were 21 tribes;[31] the number of tribes reached the classical number of thirty-five in 241 BC. It was not thereafter changed.[32]
The tribal assembly over time came to elect more kinds of magistrates. After the election of quaestors, it started to elect curule aediles in 366 BC, military tribunes in 311, and commissions for the establishment of colonies by 197 BC.[33] Trials before the people (Latin:iudicium populi) were also held before the tribes under the presidency of aediles by 329 and under plebeian tribunes by 212.[34]
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In the aftermath of theSocial war (91–87 BC), Rome's Italian allies received Roman citizenship. How the allies would be incorporated into the Roman citizen body for voting purposes was a highly politicised and difficult question. Various proposals to that effect were brought.
The first was in thelex Julia to give citizenship to the allies.[35] This proposed the creation of a few new tribes – two, eight, or ten – into which the vast numbers of new citizens could be packed and forced to vote last, depriving them of political influence proportionate to their numbers.[36][37] A plebeian tribune of 88 BC namedPublius Sulpicius Rufus brought legislation to overturn these arrangements and, passed with force and a political deal withGaius Marius, enrolled the new citizens in the existing set of thirty-five tribes.[38][39] Although Sulpicius' legislation was abrogated after the then-consulSullamarched on Rome, his successorLucius Cornelius Cinna brought and implemented similar legislation in the coming years. By Sulla's return from the east after theFirst Mithridatic War, re-enrolling the Italians into a few tribes was politically (and militarily) impossible; Sulla and the senate did nothing to disturb it.[40]
Enrolment of the new citizens among the existing tribes made them a target for Roman political electioneering, which relied on the aristocrats plying voters with gifts and patronage.[41] However, the impact of enrolment for the far-flung Italians was minimal since political rights could only be exercised in person at Rome at the initiative of the urban magistrates.[42] Regardless, integrating these new citizens into the urban elite's patronage structures and mobilising them for political struggles at Rome was a fraught and disruptive process which contributed to the stormy politics of the next generation.[43]
The tribal assembly is still attested into the imperial era. The last known law passed by anycomitia is thelex Cocceia agraria in AD 98.[44][45] It met at least into the third century AD. Memories of the tribes and elections continued into late antiquity, even though the institutions themselves were obsolete.[46]
While each tribe had each vote and voters were not ranked by wealth for voting purposes, the number of voters within each tribe was not the same. The newer tribes created in the third and fourth centuries likely had within them more voters than the older tribes closer to Rome. Nor was it entirely likely that the outlying tribes' poorer voters would have the time to make themselves physically present in Rome for an assembly. This likely favoured, for rural tribes, wealthy landowners who could afford to make the journey to Rome and have their votes counted.[21] However, this effect may have been mediated in the late republic by population inflows to Rome itself. Since there were no completed censuses between 70 and 28 BC, persons registered in a rural tribe who moved into the city were likely never reassigned to an urban one, meaning that votes were likely dominated by residents of the city.[47]
Each of the tribes was artificial; they did not correspond to any real bond of antecedence but instead to a geographic district in which a voter's properties were.[48] The thirty-five tribes were divided into two groups: the thirty-one "rural" tribes and four "urban" tribes. Initially they were merely differences in residence but by the middle republic the "urban" tribes had become socially inferior.[49] Imperial-era evidence indicates that the urban tribes had some 34 times more citizens at Rome than the rural tribes.[50]
The four urban tribes were assigned to Rome and were Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, and Collina.[51] Suburana, also called Succusana, and Esquilina were especially disfavoured.[52] They were perceived as less prestigious: it was a possible punishment from the censors to be relegated from a rural tribe to an urban one.[53] Moreover, so to restrict the influence of manumitted slaves and dilute their individual votes, these were the four tribes into which all freedmen were assigned regardless of their locations of actual residence. While attempts were made at various times to assign freedmen to rural tribes and win their political support, such attempts were always reverted.[54][55]
The other thirty-one rural tribes were, assigned a traditional ordering, likely based in a counter-clockwise sequence around Rome grouped by road.Michael Crawford's ordering published in 2002 follows:
Each tribe corresponded to a geographic area. Initially, in the archaic period they were expanded largely by extending the neighbouring tribe and attaching whatever the relevant territory contiguously.[57] However, when Rome conquered substantial territories, such as after the victory over Veii, new tribes were established therein.[58] However, they were also sometimes associated with specific ethnic areas, lumped together as a single tribe after conquest. Both poor and rich citizens benefited from new tribes: the poor received land allotments and the rich, by changing tribe, gave themselves political influence in a tribe which, due to distance from Rome, sent few voters but received a same vote regardless.[58]
The continued expansion offormal Roman territory, made it sometimes inconsistent as to which tribe a new town should be assigned. Sometimes, a town could be assigned to an existing tribe on the basis that it was the same radial direction from Rome as the existing tribe.[59] Other times, tribes expanded contiguously but with little attention paid to radial direction, such as along theTyrrhenian coast.[60] Towns could also be grouped by original ethnicity and enrolled in the same tribe: the land of theager Gallicus for example was mostly enrolled into the tribe Pollia.[61] Finally, tribes could be assigned arbitrarily, or at least for reasons not now knowable, or forgerrymandering-like political reasons.[62]
By the middle republic, the tribes had become hugely malapportioned, especially so for the huge and distant tribes Pollia and Velina.[63] Further expansion of Roman territory in the aftermath of the Social war and the eventual decision to enrol the Italians into the existing thirty-five tribes rather than confine them to a limited number of new tribes, compounded the chaos. The Latins, who were ancient Roman allies were enfranchised and registered likely based on the tribe previously assigned to their magistrates (since 125 BC magistrates of Latin towns received Roman citizenship and a tribe).[64] Other Latins were assigned to tribes that were known to have few citizens.[65] The Italians who fought against Rome, however, were assigned by ethnicity to tribes that were not allotted to the Latins.[66] By the end of the post-Social war enrolments, the tribes remained malapportioned (though to an extent less so with expansion of some of the smaller tribes) and had also become largely non-contiguous, with some tribes divided into up to six different districts.[67]
In the late republic the older rural tribes close by to Rome may have become depopulated by urban inflow and the decline of independent small farms close to the city. Such tribes would have become akin torotten boroughs where aristocratic families controlled tribal votes malapportioned to a tiny electorate.[21] However, it is not clear whether rural tribesmen migrating to Rome were routinely re-enrolled into the urban tribes. That after the Sullan period the censors were never able to complete their tasks suggests that no such re-enrolment occurred.[47]
The tribal assembly and the plebeian council were organised on the same principles and voted by tribes. After thelex Hortensia in 287 BC endowed the plebeian council with full legislative powers, the two assemblies became practically identical.[1] The modern orthodoxy distinguishes acomitia tributa from aconcilium plebis, where the latter is a meeting of plebeians alone. Under this formulation, there are two tribal assemblies, one of the whole people and one of plebeians only.[68]
Some scholars believe that there was, however, only one tribal assembly. In this formulation, the only tribal assembly was the plebeian council and that for most, if not all, of the republican era tribal assemblies were convened by plebeian tribunes and not by curule magistrates such as consuls and praetors. Under this view, the statements that a consul or praetor legislated before the tribes were simplifications meant to express a curule magistrate leaning on a friendly tribune.[69] This view rejects the modern "orthodoxy"[70] fromTheodor Mommsen that the separation reflected plebeians' status as a "state within a state"[71][72] and accentuates the difference between tribal and centuriate assemblies, placing the former as the people organised for a civil purpose (domi) within thepomerium and the latter as organised for a military one (militiae) on thecampus Martius outside that sacral boundary.[73]
Andrew Lintott, inConstitution of the Roman Republic (1999), rejects the single tribal assembly hypothesis, noting that in the historical period there are multiple cases where laws were brought before the tribes by curule magistrates.[74] Belief in an early weakcomitia tributa may have emerged during Sulla's consulship when he brought legislation – appealing to an inventedServian tradition – to make thecomitia centuriata the sole legislative assembly.[75]
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