1494 treaty dividing the unclaimed world between Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty
This article is about the 1494 treaty between Portugal and Spain. For the treaty signed in 1524 between the Habsburgs and Monaco, seeTreaty of Tordesillas (1524).
Treaty of Tordesillas
Front page of the Portuguese-owned treaty. This page is written in Spanish.
To resolve the conflict that arose from the 1481papal bull Aeterni regis which affirmed Portuguese claims to all non-Christian lands south of the Canary Islands after Columbus claimed the Antilles for Castile, and to divide trading and colonising rights for all lands located west of the Canary Islands between Portugal and Castile (later applied between the Spanish Crown and Portugal) to the exclusion of any other Christian empires.
TheTreaty of Tordesillas,[a] signed inTordesillas, Spain, on 7 June 1494, andratified inSetúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between theKingdom of Portugal and theCrown of Castile, along ameridian 370 leagues or 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) west of theCape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. That line of demarcation was about halfway between Cape Verde (already Portuguese) and the islands visited byChristopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty asCipangu andAntillia (Cuba andHispaniola).
The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, modifying an earlierbull byPope Alexander VI. The treaty was created on 7 June 1494, then ratified by Spain on2 July 1494, by Portugal on5 September 1494, and byPope Julius II on 24 January 1506.[5] The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by theTreaty of Zaragoza, signed on22 April 1529, which specified theantimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Portugal and Spain largely respected the treaties, while the Indigenous peoples of the Americas did not acknowledge them.[6]
The convent inSetúbal, where the Portuguese king John II ratified the treaty in 1494.Lines dividing the non-Christian world between Castile and Portugal: the 1494 Tordesillas meridian (purple) and the 1529 Zaragoza antimeridian (green)
The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that arose following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, who had sailed under the Crown of Castile. On his way back toSpain, he first stopped at Lisbon, where he requested another meeting withKing John II to prove to him that there were more islands to the southwest of the Canary Islands.
After learning of the Castilian-sponsored voyage, the Portuguese King sent a threatening letter to theCatholic Monarchs, KingFerdinand and QueenIsabella, stating that by theTreaty of Alcáçovas signed in 1479 and by the 1481papal bullAeterni regis that granted all lands south of the Canary Islands to Portugal, all of the lands discovered by Columbus belonged, in fact, to Portugal. The Portuguese king also stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet (an armada led byFrancisco de Almeida) to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands.[9] The Spanish rulers replied that Spain owned the islands discovered by Columbus and warned King John II not to permit anyone from Portugal to go there. Finally, the rulers invited Portugal to send ambassadors to begin diplomatic negotiations aimed at settling the rights of each nation in the Atlantic.[9]
On 4 May 1493,Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia), anAragonese fromValencia by birth, decreed in the bullInter caetera that all lands west of a pole-to-pole line 100 leagues west of any of the islands of theAzores or the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Castile, although territory under Christian rule as of Christmas 1492 would remain untouched.[citation needed] The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. Another bull,Dudum siquidem, entitledExtension of the Apostolic Grant and Donation of the Indies and dated25 September 1493, gave all mainlands and islands, "at one time or even still belonging to India" to Spain, even if east of the line.[citation needed]
The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, his near-term goal.[9] By 1493, Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, theCape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, but the explicit mention of India was a major issue. As the Pope had not made changes, the Portuguese king opened direct negotiations with the Catholic Monarchs to move the line to the west and allow him to claim newly discovered lands east of the line. In the bargain, John acceptedInter caetera as the starting point of discussion with Ferdinand and Isabella but had the boundary line moved270leagues[vague] west, protecting the Portuguese route down the coast ofAfrica and giving the Portuguese rights to lands that now constitute the eastern quarter of Brazil. As one scholar assessed the results, "both sides must have known that so vague a boundary could not be accurately fixed, and each thought that the other was deceived", concluding that it was a "diplomatic triumph for Portugal, confirming to the Portuguese not only the true route to India, but most of the South Atlantic".[10]
The treaty was negotiated without consulting Pope Alexander VI and effectively countered his bulls. However, it was subsequently sanctioned by his successorPope Julius II by means of the bullEa quae pro bono pacis of24 January 1506 and therefore some sources call the resulting line the "Papal Line of Demarcation".[11][12]
Very little of the newly divided area had actually been seen by Europeans, as it was only divided via the treaty. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth. The easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, so his landing in Brazil was not an accident.[13] One scholar points to Cabral's landing on the Brazilian coast 12 degrees farther south than the expectedCape São Roque, such that "the likelihood of making such a landfall as a result of freak weather or a navigational error was remote; and it is highly probable that Cabral had been instructed to investigate a coast whose existence was not merely suspected, but already known".[14]
The line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist thePortuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, Spain attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, dividing the whole world in half rather than just the Atlantic. Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by PopeLeo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, in 1514 in the bullPraecelsae devotionis.[15]
The divided possessions sanctioned by the treaty continued, even when Spain and Portugal were united under a single king between 1580 and 1640, until the treaty was superseded by the 1750Treaty of Madrid.
Emerging Protestant maritime powers, particularly England and The Netherlands, and other third parties such as Catholic France, did not recognize the division of the world between only two Catholic nations brokered by the pope.[16]
The Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands. It did not specify the length of the league, its equivalent in equatorial degrees, or which of the Cape Verde islands was intended. Instead, the treaty provided that these matters were to be settled by a joint voyage. This voyage never occurred, and instead there were only a series of nonbinding expert opinions produced over the next several decades. Their computations were further complicated by remaining uncertainty about the exact equatorial circumference of the earth. As such, each proposed line can be variously computed using geographical leagues defined in terms of a degree using a ratio which applies regardless of the size of the earth or using aspecifically measured league applied to the actual equatorial circumference of the earth, with allowances necessary for the imperfect Portuguese and Spanish knowledge of its true dimensions.[18]
The earliest Aragonese opinion was provided by Jaime Ferrer in 1495 at the request of Ferdinand and Isabella. He stated to them that the demarcation line was 18° west of the most central island of the Cape Verde Islands, equivalent to 24°25′ west ofGreenwich. (Harrisse concludes Ferrer must have meantFogo as this central island.) Thus, Ferrer placed the line at 42°25′ W. on his sphere, which was 21.1% larger than the actual size of the earth. Harrisse further concludes from Ferrer's claim that his league contained 32 Olympicstades (6.15264 km or 3.82307 mi) that his line—if perfectly measured—would have corresponded to a position2,276.5 km (1,414.6 mi) west of Fogo at 47°37′ W.[19]
The earliest surviving Portuguese opinion is on theCantino planisphere of 1501 or 1502, generally considered to represent thePortuguese standard map of its day. Because its demarcation line was midway between Cape Saint Roque, the northeast cape of South America, and the mouth of theAmazon River, labeled the Great River (Rio Grande) with an estuary marked "All of this sea is fresh water" (Todo este mar he de agua doçe), Harrisse computed that this line was at 42°30′ W. on the actual globe. Harrisse believed the large estuary just west of the line on the Cantino map was that of the Rio Maranhão (this estuary is now theBaía de São Marcos and the river is now theMearim), whose flow is so weak that its gulf doesnot contain fresh water.[20]
In 1518, another Castilian opinion was provided byMartin Fernández de Enciso. Harrisse computes that Enciso's sphere was 7.7% smaller than the actual size of the earth so his line at 47°24′ W. corresponds to the actual 45°38′ W. based on his other numerical data. Enciso further described the coastal features near which the line passed, but in a very confused manner that might place the line as far west as the mouth of the Amazon between49°W and50°W.[21]
In 1524, the Castilian mathematician Tomás Durán andpilotsSebastian Cabot (son ofJohn Cabot) andJuan Vespucci (nephew ofAmerigo Vespucci) gave their opinion to theconference at Badajoz, whose failure to resolve the dispute led to theTreaty of Zaragoza. The pilots specified that the line should be understood as 22° plus about9Spanish miles (12.5388 km or 7.7912 mi) west of the center ofSanto Antão, the westernmost Cape Verde island. Based on their understanding of the equator, Harrisse concludes they intended 47°17′ W. on their sphere (3.1% smaller than ours) or 46°36′W on the actual globe.[22]
At the same conference, the Portuguese presented a globe on which the line was marked as 21°30′ west of Santo Antão, which would place it at 47°16′52″ W. when adjusted to match the actual circumference of the earth,[23] nearly identical to the Spanish suggestion. However, the Badajoz conference disbanded without reaching any formal settlement on any issue.
The 1529Treaty of Zaragoza, agreed to by the Spanish kingCharles I (Emperor Charles V) andJohn III of Portugal, implicitly assumes within its measurements of a new eastern line that the leagues of the two treaties should be understood as a geographical league equivalent to 4/70th of an equatorial degree,[24] placing the line between 43°56′ and 46°18′ W. depending on the island chosen. Note, however, that the 1529Diogo Ribeiro map—generally considered to represent the now-lostSpanish standard map used to finalize the agreement at Zaragoza—placed its own delineation of the Tordesillas agreement much further west, around 49°45′ W.[17]
Initially, the line of demarcation did not encircle the earth. Instead, Spain and Portugal could conquer any new lands they were the first to discover, Spain to the west and Portugal to the east, even if they passed each other on the other side of the globe.[25] But Portugal's discovery of the highly valuedMoluccas in 1512 caused Spain to argue in 1518[citation needed] that the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the earth into two equal hemispheres. After the surviving ships ofMagellan's fleet visited the Moluccas in 1521, Spain claimed that those islands were within its western hemisphere. The Treaty of Vitoria, negotiated between Spain and Portugal on 19 February 1524, called for the Junta of Badajoz to meet in an attempt to reach an agreement on the anti-meridian, which ultimately failed.[26] It was finally agreed in theTreaty of Zaragoza (or Saragossa), signed on 22 April 1529, that Spain would relinquish its claims to the Moluccas upon the payment of 350,000ducats of gold[b] by Portugal to Spain. To prevent Spain from encroaching upon Portugal's Moluccas, the anti-meridian was to be297+1⁄2 leagues or 17° to the east of the Moluccas, passing through the islands of Las Velas and Santo Thome.[27] This distance is slightly smaller than the 300 leagues determined by Magellan as the westward distance from los Ladrones to the Philippine island ofSamar, which is just west of due north of the Moluccas.[28]
The Moluccas are a group of islands west of New Guinea. However, unlike the large modernIndonesianarchipelago of theMaluku Islands, to 16th-century Europeans the Moluccas were a small chain of islands, the only place on earth wherecloves grew, just west of the large north Malukan island ofHalmahera (called Gilolo at the time). Cloves were so prized by Europeans for the medicinal uses that they were worth their weight in gold.[29][30] 16th- and 17th-century maps and descriptions indicate that the main islands wereTernate,Tidore,Moti,Makian andBacan, although the last was often ignored even though it was by far the largest island.[31][32][33] The principal island was Ternate at the chain's northern end (0°47′N, only 11 kilometres (7 mi) in diameter) on whose southwest coast the Portuguese built a stone fort (Forte de São João Baptista de Ternate) during 1522–23,[34][c] which could only be repaired, not modified, according to the Treaty of Zaragoza. This north–south chain occupies two degrees of latitude bisected by the equator at about 127°24′E, with Ternate, Tidore, Moti, and Makian north of the equator and Bacan south of it.
Although the treaty's Santo Thome island has not been identified, its "Islas de las Velas" (Islands of the Sails) appear in a 1585 Spanish history of China, on the 1594 world map ofPetrus Plancius, on an anonymous map of the Moluccas in the 1598 London edition ofLinschoten, and on the 1607 world map of Petro Kærio, identified as a north–south chain of islands in the northwest Pacific, which were also called the "Islas de los Ladrones" (Islands of the Thieves) during that period.[35][d][36][e][37] Their name was changed by Spain in 1667 to "Islas de las Marianas" (Mariana Islands), which includeGuam at their southern end. Guam's longitude of 144°45′E is east of the Moluccas' longitude of 127°24′E by 17°21′, which is remarkably close by 16th-century standards to the treaty's 17° east. This longitude passes through the eastern end of the main north Japanese island ofHokkaido and through the eastern end of New Guinea, which is where Frédéric Durand placed the demarcation line.[38] Moriarty and Keistman placed the demarcation line at 147°E by measuring 16.4° east from the western end of New Guinea (or 17° east of 130°E).[39] Despite the treaty's clear statement that the demarcation line passes 17° east of the Moluccas, some sources place the line just east of the Moluccas.[40][41][42]
The Treaty of Zaragoza did not modify or clarify the line of demarcation provided by the Treaty of Tordesillas, nor did it validate Spain's claim to equal hemispheres (180° each), so the two lines divided the earth into unequal hemispheres. Portugal's portion was roughly 191° whereas Spain's portion was roughly 169°. Both portions have a large uncertainty of ±4° because of the wide variation in the opinions regarding the location of the Tordesillas line.[citation needed]
Portugal gained control of all lands and seas west of the Zaragoza line, including all of Asia and its neighboring islands so far discovered, leaving Spain most of the Pacific Ocean. Although the Philippines were not named in the treaty, Spain implicitly relinquished any claim to them because they were well west of the line. Nevertheless, by 1542, Charles V decided to colonize the Philippines, judging that Portugal would not protest because the archipelago had no spices. Although a number of expeditions sent fromNew Spain arrived in the Philippines, they were unable to establish a settlement because the return route across the Pacific was unknown. KingPhilip II succeeded in 1565 when he sentMiguel López de Legazpi andAndrés de Urdaneta, establishing the initial Spanish trading post atCebu and later founding Manila in 1571.
Spain, on the other hand, would control vast western regions in the Americas, in areas ranging from the present-day United States to present-day Argentina, an empire that would extend to the Philippines, and bases in Ternate andFormosa (17th century).
Portuguese and Spanish empires (anachronous world maps)
The attitude towards the treaty that other governments had was expressed by France'sFrancis I, who declared, "The sun shines for me as it does for others. I would very much like to see the clause ofAdam's will by which I should be denied my share of the world."[43]
On January 13, 1750,King John V of Portugal andFerdinand VI of Spain signed the Treaty of Madrid, in which both parties sought to establish the borders between Brazil and Spanish America, admitting that the Treaty of Tordesillas, as it had been envisioned in 1494, had been superseded, and was considered void. Spanish sovereignty was acknowledged over the Philippines, while Portugal would get the territory of the Amazon River basin. Portugal would relinquish thecolony of Sacramento, on theleft bank of theRiver Plata in modern-day Uruguay, while getting the territory of theSeven Missions.[44]
The Treaty of Tordesillas was invoked by Chile in the 20th century to defend the principle of anAntarctic sector extending along a meridian to the South Pole, as well as the assertion that the treaty made Spanish (or Portuguese) all undiscovered land south to the Pole.[45]
^Assuming the treaty reckoned its "350,000 ducats" asthe era's Spanishducados rather thanVenetian ducats, this would have represented about 1220 kg of pure gold.
^After theSpanish-Portuguese Union (1580–1640) and the effective Dutch conquest of the Moluccas (1605–1611, pp. 152–153), the fort was destroyed by the Spanish in 1666 during their retreat to the Philippines. (p. 156)
^The islands were named both las Velas and los Ladrones in a quote from Father Juan González de Mendoza inHistoria de las cosas más notables, ritos y costumbres del gran Reino de la China (History of the most remarkable things, rites and customs of the great Kingdom of China, 1585).
^With detailed maps naming each island on several maps.
^Leslie Ronald Marchant,The Papal Line of Demarcation and Its Impact in the Eastern Hemisphere on the Political Division of Australia, 1479–1829 (Greenwood, Western Australia: Woodside Valley Foundation, 2008)ISBN978-1-74126-423-4.
^Corn 1998, p. xxiv. I split the nut, once more valuable than gold.
^Gavan Daws and Marty Fujita,Archipelago: The Islands of Indonesia, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 98,ISBN0-520-21576-1 (early 1500s).
Chardon, Roland (1980), "The Linear League in North America",Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 70, Association of American Geographers, Taylor & Francis, pp. 129–153,doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1980.tb01304.x,JSTOR2562946.
Corn, Charles (1998),The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade, New York: Kodansha,ISBN1-56836-202-1.
Cortesao, Armando (1939), "Antonio Pereira and His Map of circa 1545",Geographical Review, vol. 29, American Geographical Society, Wiley, pp. 205–225,doi:10.2307/209943,JSTOR209943.
Knowlton, Edgar C. (1963), "China and the Philippines inEl Periquillo Sarniento",Hispanic Review, vol. 31, University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 336–347,doi:10.2307/472212,JSTOR472212.
Parry, J. H. (1973),The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650, London: Cardinal,ISBN0-297-16603-4.
Akerman, James R. (2009),The Imperial Map, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bourne, Edward G. (1892), "The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation by Pope Alexander VI, between the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization",Annual Report for 1891,Washington: American Historical Association, included in theSenate Miscellaneous Documents, Vol. V (1891–1892), pp. 103–130.
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