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The relationship betweentransgender people and religion varies widely around the world. Religions range from condemning anygender variance to honoringtransgender people as religious leaders. Views within a singlereligion can vary considerably, as can views between different faiths.
Abrahamic religions (namelyJudaism,Samaritanism,Christianity, theBaháʼí Faith, andIslam) have traditionally affirmed and endorsed apatriarchal andheteronormative approach towardshuman sexuality,[1][2][3][4] favouring exclusivelypenetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries ofmarriage over all other forms ofhuman sexual activity,[3][4] includingautoeroticism,masturbation,oral sex,non-penetrative andnon-heterosexual sexual intercourse (all of which have been labelled as "sodomy" at various times),[5] believing and teaching that such behaviours are forbidden because they aresinful,[3][4] and further compared to or derived from the behaviour of the alleged residents ofSodom and Gomorrah.[3][6][7][8][9] However, the status of LGBTQ people inearly Christianity[10][11][12][13] andearly Islam[14][15][16][17] is debated. In Islam, oral intercourse isn't forbidden, but considered undesireable (makruh).[18]
There are many different interpretations of creation stories inAbrahamic religions in whichGod creates people "male and female".[1][19][20] This is sometimes interpreted as a divine mandate against challenging thegender binary and also for challenging the gender binary.[1][21]
In theBaháʼí Faith, transgender people can gain recognition in their gender if they have medically transitioned under the direction of medical professionals and if they haveGender-affirming surgery (i.e. Sexual Reassignment Surgery or SRS). After SRS, they are considered transitioned and may have a Baháʼí marriage.[22] Little has been published on the topic by top leaders of the faith as of 2021.[23]
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TheNew Testament presents eunuchs (Greektransl. el – transl. eunochos, similar to Hebrewsaris) as acceptable candidates for evangelism and baptism, as demonstrated in the account of the conversion of anEthiopian eunuch.[24] While answering questions about marriage and divorce, Jesus says that "there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven."[25] Discussion has occurred about the significance of the selection of the Ethiopian eunuch as being an early gentile convert to Christianity: the inclusion of a eunuch, representing a sexual minority, in the context of the time.[26]
Some Christian denominations accept transgender people as members and clergy:
TheCatechism of the Catholic Church, promulgated in 1992, does not mention transgender issues directly.[42] In 2000, the CatholicCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith sent a confidential document to church leaders reportedly stating that sex-change procedures do not change a person's gender in the eyes of the Church. A person familiar with the document told theCatholic News Service, "The key point is that the (transsexual) surgical operation is so superficial and external that it does not change the personality. If the person was a male, he remains male. If she was female, she remains female."[43] The document reportedly concludes that a "sex-change" operation could be morally acceptable in certain extreme cases, but that in any case transgender people cannot validly marry.[43]Pope Benedict XVI denouncedgender studies, warning that it blurs the distinction between male and female and could thus lead to the "self-destruction" of the human race.[44] He warned against the manipulation that takes place in national and international forums when the term "gender" is altered. "What is often expressed and understood by the term 'gender,' is definitively resolved in the self-emancipation of the human being from creation and the Creator", he warned. "Man wants to create himself, and to decide always and exclusively on his own about what concerns him." Benedict said this is humanity living "against truth, against the creating Spirit".[45]
In 2015, the Vatican declared that transgender Catholics cannot become godparents, stating in response to a transgender man's query that transgender status "reveals in a public way an attitude opposite to the moral imperative of solving the problem of sexual identity according to the truth of one's own sexuality" and that, "[t]herefore it is evident that this person does not possess the requirement of leading a life according to the faith and in the position of godfather and is therefore unable to be admitted to the position of godfather or godmother."[46] Pope Francis stated in 2016 that "biological sex and the socio-cultural role of sex (gender) can be distinguished but not separated".[47]
In 2023, a document from theDicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, responding to questions from José Negri,Bishop of Santo Amaro, said that transgender people could be baptised, be godparents at a baptism, and be witnesses at weddings, so long as such situations would not causescandal.[48][49]
Individual Catholics have held a range of positions regarding transgender issues. Apologist Tim Staples has stated that experiencing gender dysphoria is not sinful but surgeries such assex reassignment surgery are morally impermissible.[50] Theologian James Whitehead has said, "The kind of transition that trans people are talking about is very similar to the journey of faith through darkness and desert that people have been making for thousands of years."[51]
In 2006,Albert Mohler, then president of theSouthern Baptist Theological Seminary, said "Only God has the right to determine gender", adding, "any attempt to alter that creation is an act of rebellion against God."[52][53] He also stated, "Christians are obligated to find our definitions ... in the Bible. What the activists want to call 'sex-reassignment surgery' must be seen as a form of bodily mutilation rather than gender correction. The chromosomes will continue to tell the story...Gender is not under our control after all. When a nation's moral rebellion comes down to this level of confusion, we are already in big trouble. A society that can't distinguish between men and women is not likely to find moral clarity in any other area of life."[53] In 2014, theSouthern Baptist Convention approved a resolution at its annual meeting stating that "God's design was the creation of two distinct and complementary sexes, male and female" and that "gender identity is determined by biological sex, not by one's self-perception".[54] Furthermore, the resolution opposes hormone therapy, transition-related care, and anything else that would "alter one's bodily identity", as well as opposing government efforts to "validate transgender identity as morally praiseworthy".[54] Instead, the resolution asks transgender people to "trust in Christ and to experience renewal in the Gospel".[54]
InMormonism's largest denominations,the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), socially or medically transitioned transgender people are not allowed to join the church viabaptism, as of 2024.[55] Transgender members will receive an annotation on their membership record which groups them with violent sexual predators and child abusers, and bars them from working with children or teaching church classes.[55] Rituals (calledordinances) such as receiving thepriesthood andtemple endowments, are only done according to birth sex.[56][57]: 64 Undergoing gender-affirming surgery may imperil the membership of an LDS Church member.[58][59][60]
Unitarian Universalism, aliberal religion with roots in liberal Christianity, became the first denomination to accept openly transgender people as full members with eligibility to become clergy (in 1979),[61] and the first to open an Office of Bisexual, Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Concerns (in 1973).[62][63] In 1988 the first openly transgender person was ordained by the Unitarian Universalist Association.[64] In 2002 Rev. Sean Dennison became the first openly transgender person in the Unitarian Universalist ministry called to serve a congregation; he was called to South Valley UU Society, Salt Lake City, Utah.[64] Also in 2017, the Unitarian Universalist Association's General Assembly voted to create inclusive wordings for non-binary, genderqueer, gender fluid, agender, intersex, two-spirit and polygender people, replacing the words "men and women" with the word "people." Of the six sources of the living tradition, the second source of faith, as documented in the bylaws of the denomination, now includes "Words and deeds of prophetic people which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love".[65]
InIslamic literature, the Classical Arabic termmukhannathun is used to describe "effeminate men". The term has sometimes been equated to transgender women,[66] gay men, members of a third gender, or intersex individuals,[67][68] although it does not neatly fit into any of those categories.[16][17][69]
The treatment ofmukhannathun varied throughoutearly Islamic history, and the meaning of the term took on new dimensions over time.[17] In some eras, men deemedmukhannathun were persecuted and castrated, while in others they were celebrated as musicians and entertainers.[17][70] According toTabari, one of the earliest authors on the meaning of theQuran, narrates thatMuhammad did not forbid themukhannatun to enter women's quarters until they started to describe the women in great detail to men.[71] In the late medieval era, several Islamic scholars held thatmukhannathun who had innate feminine mannerisms were not blameworthy as long as they did not violateIslamic religious laws concerning sexual morality.[17] In later years, the term came to be associated with the receptive partner ingay sexual practices, as homosexuality was seen as an extension of effeminacy.
In the late 1980s, MuftiMuhammad Sayyid Tantawy ofEgypt issued afatwa supporting the right for those who fit the description ofmukhannathun to havesex reassignment surgery;[67][68] Tantawy seems to have associated themukhannathun with the concept of hermaphroditism orintersex individuals.Ayatollah Khomeini ofIran issued similarfatwas around the same time.[67][68] Khomeini's initialfatwa concerned intersex individuals as well, but he later specified thatsex reassignment surgery was also permissible in the case of transgender individuals.[67][68] Becausehomosexuality is illegal in Iran butidentifying as a trans person is legal, some gay individuals have been forced to undergo sex reassignment surgery and transition into the opposite sex, regardless of their actual gender identity.[72] Due to Khomeini'sfatwas allowingsex reassignment surgery for intersex and transgender individuals,[67][68] Iran carries out more sex change operations than any other nation in the world except forThailand. It is sanctioned as a supposed "cure" for homosexuality, which ispunishable by death penalty under Iranian law. The Iranian government even provides up to half the cost for those needing financial assistance and a sex change is recognised on the birth certificate.[73]
In some regions ofSouth Asia such asIndia,Bangladesh, andPakistan, thehijras are officially recognized as athird gender that is neither male nor female,[74] a concept that some have compared tomukhannathun.[16] Transgender Muslims may encounter multiple forms of minority stress as a religious minority, gender minority, and often as immigrant and ethnic minorities as well. Etengoff & Rodriguez (2020) conducted an explanatory study with 15 transgender Muslims and found that although 14 of the 15 participants spoke of coming-out challenges, the average depression scores for the sample were moderate and self-esteem scores were within the normal range. In addition,qualitative analysis suggested that 8 of the 15 participants used religion and spirituality as important coping tools (e.g., Allah, Quran, liberation theology). This research offers an applied intersectional, positive growth framework for the study of transgender individuals' gender and Muslim identity experiences.[75]
Jewish views of transgender people have varied by time and denomination. Reform and Reconstructionist groups have expressed positive views while Orthodox, Hasidic, and Conservative groups have expressed negative views.
Rabbinic Jewish texts discusssix sex/gender categories.[76][77][78]
The termsaris (סָרִיס), generally translated to English as "eunuch" or "chamberlain",[79] appears 45 times in theTanakh. It frequently refers to a trusted but gender-variant person who was delegated authority by a powerful person.[80] It is unclear whether most were in fact castrated.[80] In Isaiah 56, God promises eunuchs who keep the Sabbath and hold fast to his covenant that he will build an especially good monument in heaven for them, to make up for their childlessness.[81]
Tumtum (טומטום in Hebrew, meaning "hidden") is a term that appears in Jewish Rabbinic literature and usually refers to a person whose sex is unknown, because their genitalia are covered or "hidden".[82] Atumtum is not defined as a separate gender, but rather a state of doubt.
Androgynos (אנדרוגינוס in Hebrew, translation "intersex") refers to someone who possesses both male and female sexual characteristics. The nature of the individual's gender is ambiguous.[82]
The concept is also briefly referenced inShulhan Aruch and mystical texts such asKabbalah, that at times, a female soul may reside in a male body, and vice-versa, although this is not formally identified as transgender in the modern sense.[83]
Orthodox Jewish religious authorities assert that gender is an innate and eternal category which is based on verses in theBook of Genesis aboutAdam and Eve and the creation of maleness and femaleness.[19] The removal of genital organs is forbidden on the basis of the prohibition against "anything which is mauled, crushed, torn or cut" (Leviticus 22:24). A further prohibition in Deuteronomy 22:5 proscribes not only cross-dressing but any action uniquely identified with the opposite sex, and this would also apply to an operation to transform sexual characteristics.[84]
Despite the religious-legal challenges presented by transgender Jews, some Orthodox rabbis recognize the high rates of suicide attempts among transgender Orthodox Jews and advocate for steps to reduce the risks of mental illness and community rejection. There have been several organizations founded to support LGBTQ Orthodox Jews, such asEshel andJQY.Orthodox Union senior policy directorRabbi Tzvi Hersh Weinreb has spoken publicly since 2016 about the need to support transgender Orthodox Jews and their families with compassion.[85]
Currently,Hasidic Judaism makes no place for trans people, because everything in the community is determined by gender roles.[86] Most Hasidic Jews are barely aware of trans people, and the topic is never discussed altogether.[87] The first person to come out as trans in a Hasidic community was trans activist and writerAbby Stein, who is also a direct descendant of Hasidic Judaism's founder theBaal Shem Tov. When Stein came out she was shunned by her family, and received much scorn from the Hasidic community.[88]
Conservative Judaism has mixed views on transgender people. In 2003, theCommittee on Jewish Law and Standards approved a rabbinic ruling that concluded that sex reassignment surgery (SRS) is permissible as a treatment ofgender dysphoria, and that a transgender person's sex status under Jewish law is changed by SRS.[89] There have not yet been any openly transgender rabbis or rabbinical students affiliated with Conservative Judaism. But the Jewish Theological Seminary, one of three Conservative movement schools, openly admits students of all sexual orientations and gender identities for rabbinical training and ordination.[90] Also, Emily Aviva Kapor, who had been ordained privately by a "Conservadox" rabbi in 2005, came out in 2012, thus becoming the first openly transgender female rabbi in all of Judaism.[91] In 2016 theRabbinical Assembly, which is the international association of Conservative rabbis, passed a "Resolution Affirming the Rights of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People".[92][93][94] In 2022 theCommittee on Jewish Law and Standards approved a ruling authorizing non-gendered language for thealiyah, and the honors of the hagbah (lifting the Torah) and the gelilah (rolling up the Torah). The ruling also includes non-gendered language for calling upCohens andLevis (descendants of the tribe of Levi) as well as how to address people without gendered language during the prayerMi Shebeirach. This was a codification of a practice that already existed in places Jewish transgender people led.[95][96]
Reform Judaism has expressed positive views on transgender people. Reform Judaism'sCentral Conference of American Rabbis first addressed the issue of transgender Jews in 1978, when they deemed it permissible for a person who has undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS) to be married according to Jewish tradition.[97][98] In 1990, theCentral Conference of American Rabbis declared that people who have undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS) may convert to Judaism.[99] In 2002 at the Reform seminaryHebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York, RabbiMargaret Wenig organized the first school-wide seminar at any rabbinical school which addressed the psychological, legal, and religious issues affecting people who are transgender orintersex.[100] In 2003Reuben Zellman became the first openly transgender person accepted toHebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion; he was ordained there in 2010.[101][102][103] Also in 2003, theUnion for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to the transgender and bisexual communities, issuing a resolution titled, "Support for the Inclusion and Acceptance of the Transgender and Bisexual Communities."[97][104] Also in 2003,Women of Reform Judaism issued a statement describing their support for human and civil rights and the struggles of the transgender and bisexual communities, and saying, "Women of Reform Judaism accordingly: Calls for civil rights protections from all forms of discrimination against bisexual and transgender individuals; Urges that such legislation allows transgender individuals to be seen under the law as the gender by which they identify; and calls upon sisterhoods to hold informative programs about the transgender and bisexual communities."[105] In 2006Elliot Kukla, who had come out as transgender six months before his ordination, became the first openly transgender person to be ordained by the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion.[101] In 2007, the Union for Reform Judaism issued a new edition ofKulanu, their resource manual for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender inclusion, which for the first time included a blessing sanctifying the sex-change process. It was written by Elliot Kukla at the request of a friend of his who was transgender.[106] Also in 2007,David Saperstein of theReligious Action Center called for a trans-inclusiveEmployment Non-Discrimination Act.[107] In 2015, the Union for Reform Judaism passed a "Resolution on the Rights of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People" with nine points calling for securing and defending the rights of transgender and gender non-confirming people to respectful and equitable treatment and affirming its own commitment to continued pursuit of same.[108][109]
Reconstructionist Judaism has expressed positive views on transgender people.[110] In 2003 the Reform rabbiMargaret Wenig organized the first school-wide seminar at theReconstructionist Rabbinical College which addressed the psychological, legal and religious issues affecting people who are transgender orintersex.[100] In 2013 theReconstructionist Rabbinical Association issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore be it resolved that the RRA [Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association] directs its executive director and board to move forward, in cooperation with the RRC [Reconstructionist Rabbinical College] and all relevant associated entities, in educating RRA members about issues of gender identity, to urge the Reconstructionist movement to similarly educate its constituency and to adopt policies that will do all that is possible to provide full employment opportunities for transgender and gender nonconforming rabbis, and to explore how the Reconstructionist movement can best influence the wider Jewish and non-Jewish world to [be] welcoming and inclusive of all people, regardless of gender identity."[111] In 2017, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association approved a resolution committing themselves to work for "full inclusion, acceptance, appreciation, celebration and welcome of people of all gender identities in Jewish life and in society at large"; the resolution also "strongly advocates for the full equality of transgender, non-binary, and gender non-conforming people and for equal protections for people of all gender identities under the law, at all levels of government, in North America and Israel."[112]
In 1998, after she won the Eurovision song competition, a serious religious debate was held as to whether, and how,Dana International (a transgender woman) should pray in a synagogue. One rabbinical authority concluded that Dana should be counted in aminyan as a man, but could not sing in front of the community since she was also a woman, according to the rabbi, and that would violate the Orthodox rule ofkol isha.[113]
In January 2015, a transgender Jewish woman, Kay Long, was denied access to theWestern Wall, first by the women's section and then by the men's section.[114][115] Long's presence was prevented by "modesty police" at women's section who are not associated with the rabbi of the Western Wall or the site administration. They are a group of female volunteers who guard the entrance to the women's section preventing entry to visitors who are not dressed to their idea of Orthodox modesty standards for women. The director of Jerusalem's Open House, a community centre for the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community, noted that Long's experience was not unique. "Gender separation at the Western Wall is harmful for transgender people. This is not the first story that we know of with transgender religious people that wanted to go to the Western Wall and pray and couldn't," said Elinor Sidi, who expected that the battle for access to the Western Wall for the LGBTQ community would be a long and difficult one.[116] It was later asserted that Kay Long would have been permitted in the women's section except for her clothing. "It was not an issue of her gender, but the way she was dressed."[114][failed verification]
Several non-denominational Jewish groups provide resources for transgender people.Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life published an LGBTQ Resource Guide in 2007.[117]Jewish Mosaic has published interpretations of Jewish texts that affirm transgender identities.[118][119]Keshet, an LGBTQ Jewish advocacy group, has assisted American Jewish day schools with properly accommodating transgender students.[120]
TheRainbow SerpentUngud has been described as androgynous. Shaman identify their erect penises with Ungud, and his androgyny inspires some to undergo ceremonialpenile subincision.[121] Angamunggi is another Rainbow Serpent, worshipped as a "giver of life".[122]
Other Australian mythological beings includeLabarindja, blue-skinned wild women or "demon women" with hair the colour of smoke.[123] Stories about them show them to be completely uninterested in romance or sex with men, and any man forcing his attention upon them could die, due to the "evil magic in their vaginas". They are sometimes depicted as gynandrous or intersex, having both a penis and a vagina. This is represented in rituals by having their part played by men in women's clothes.[124]
The patron god isDionysus, a god gestated in the thigh of his father Zeus, after his mother died from being overwhelmed by Zeus's true form.[125][126]Aphroditus was anandrogynous Aphrodite fromCyprus with a religious cult in which worshiperscross-dressed,[127] in later mythology became known asHermaphroditus, the son of Hermes and Aphrodite who merged bodies with the water nymphSalmacis, transforming him into an androgynous being. InPhrygia there wasAgdistis, a hermaphroditic being created when Zeus unwittingly impregnatedGaia. The gods feared Agdistis and Dionysus castrated her; she then became the goddessCybele.[128]
In addition, Norse gods were capable of changing gender at will, for exampleLoki, frequently disguised himself as a woman and gave birth to a foal while in the form of a white mare, after a sexual encounter with the stallionSvaðilfari.
Human fertility was a major aspect of Egyptian mythology, and was often entwined with the crop fertility provided by annual flooding of the river Nile.[129] This connection was shown in iconography of Nile-gods, such asHapi, god of theNile, andWadj-wer, god of theNile Delta, who although male were depicted with female attributes such as pendulous breasts, symbolizing the fertility the river provides.[130]
There is no general consensus on views towardstransgender people in Buddhism, as it has not been directly mentioned byGautama Buddha or theBuddhist sutras. The14th Dalai Lama himself has expressed conflicting views on the subject, having condemned violence againstLGBTQ people and expressed interest in medical advancements for LGBTQ people, but has also stated in a 1997 interview that "from a Buddhist point of view [lesbian and gay sex] is generally considered sexual misconduct."[131] There are highly varied views on the topic, most stemming from personal opinion. There are no official rules prohibiting transgender people from becomingbhikkhu, and the 2015 US Transgender Survey found that 6% of transgender Americans identify asBuddhist.[132]
InThai Buddhism, beingkathoey (an umbrella term that roughly maps to a range of things from male-assigned transgender people to male homosexuality) is seen as being part of one'skarma if it should be the case for a person. The response is one of "pity" rather than "blame". Kathoey are generally seen as not likely to form lasting relationships with men, and the lay explanation of their karma is that they are working out debts from adulterous behavior in past lives. In the past they disrupted marriages, and now they are doomed to never marry.[133]
Hindu philosophy has the concept of athird sex orthird gender (tritiya-prakriti – literally, "third nature"). The people in this category of sex/gender are calledHijras in Hinduism.[134] This category includes a wide range of people with mixed natures of gender and sex, such as homosexuals, transgender people, bisexuals, intersex people, and so on.[135] Such persons were not considered fully male or female in traditional Hinduism, being a combination of both. They are mentioned as third sex by nature (birth)[136] and were not expected to behave like ordinary men and women. Hijras identify themselves as incomplete men, that they do not have the desires (for women) that other men do. This lack of desire they attribute to a "defective organ." If a Hijra is not born with a "defective" organ (and most are not), they must make it so by emasculation.[137] They often kept their own societies or town quarters, performed specific occupations (such as masseurs, hairdressers, flower-sellers, domestic servants, etc.) and were generally attributed a semi-divine status. Their participation in religious ceremonies, especially as crossdressing dancers and devotees of certain temple gods/goddesses, is considered auspicious in traditional Hinduism. Some Hindus believe that third-sex people have special powers allowing them to bless or curse others. However, these beliefs are not upheld in all divisions of Hinduism. In Hinduism, the universal creation is honored as unlimitedly diverse and the recognition of a third sex is simply one more aspect of this understanding.[138][self-published source][139]
Within the Hindu context, Hijras have always been considered a part of the third gender diaspora, and hence the term Hijra, Transgender or Third gender will be used interchangeably.[139]
Due to their classification as third gender and being sexually neutral, Transgender people, especially the devotees of Krishna, have been historically shown to bestow blessings. Being sexually neutral was considered especially auspicious in Vedic culture because the attraction between a man and woman was thought to create further attachments such as children due to procreation, and a home in terms of property, which would result in the living entities being entangled insamsara, the cycle of repeated birth and death.
The people of the third sex have had a prominent role in the arts and entertainment. Historically referred to as Nartaka, at the birth of a baby, Nartaka dancers would arrive, dance and sing the name of Krishna and bless the baby. As per custom, they were given precious jewelry and silks by the family of the baby for their contribution.
One more example of Transgender people being portrayed in Hindu history is that of Arjuna being depicted as Brihannala in theMahabharata, who was a person of third gender.[140] Brihanalla was shown to be an instructor singing and dancing in King Virata's court. But Arjuna/Brihanalla was first tested for his third-sex nature by assuring he had no lust for females, and would have been examined for testicles if he had been a eunuch. This is not the first example of the presence of a person of third gender in Hindu texts, but this example most pertains to the topic of third gender people and their auspiciousness.
In October 2013, "India's Supreme court stated that transgenders have remained untouchable in society with restricted access to education, health care and jobs. The justices criticized the government for such discrimination during a hearing of public interest litigation filed by the National Legal Services Authority".[141] This problem for Hijras first began during the British rule (1757-1947) with the introduction of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code in 1860 which declared homosexuality as a crime, and had an extended listing which has declared "Transgenders as criminal elements in society".[141]
Transgender people have been treated as outcasts within Indian society and thus have been "deprived of social and cultural participation for nearly two centuries." Many assigned-male Hijras undergo a ritualized castration callednirva.[141] They have limited access to education, health care and public facilities and are treated as nonentities legally, which is in violation of the Constitution of India.[141] Despite being recognized as legal citizens, only an estimated 25% of transgender people have obtained the national identification (Aadhar card). Transgender people are unable to "exercise their democratic rights in marriage, adopting/raising children and utilizing financial support system such as free and subsidized health care, surgeries and medical treatments".[141]
There has been some support for transgender people as "The Supreme Court has directed the central government to place transgendered in the other backward classes (OBCs) to classify their castes denoting their socially and economically disadvantaged status in society"[141] as they fall within the classification of people as defined in Article 15 (4) of the Constitution of India. The Supreme Court of India has directed all Indian states to build separate restrooms for transgender people, and "to establish welfare agencies to enhance their health and medical needs."[141]
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In most branches ofWicca, a person's status as trans- or cisgender is not considered an issue. Transgender people are generally magical people, according to Karla McLaren in herEnergetic Boundaries study guide. Transgender people are almost always welcomed in individual communities, covens, study groups, and circles.[142] Many transgender people were initially attracted tomodern paganism because of this inclusion.
However, there are some Neopagan groups that do not welcome transgender people. In some cases, this is because of the emphasis on the union of male and female, and the exclusion of transgender individuals from such practices.[143] Also, somegender separatist groups exclude transgender people, often on the basis that non-transgender individuals share certain spiritual qualities derived from assigned sex.[143]Dianic Wicca is an example of such a separatist group.[144]
Third gender characteristics contained in Shinto were gradually eliminated by theMeiji government'sWesternization policy.[145] For example, Ishiki Kaii Jōrei (違式詿違条例) ordinances, enacted in many prefectures in 1873, impose a fine of 10sen on all cross-dressing. This led to the oppression of transgender people who "regularly cross-dressed."[146]
Even after the Meiji period, androgynous symbolizations continued to be believed inunorthodox new sects that was sometimes deemed heretical by theimperial government.[145]: 12―13 Some of the founders of these sects identified themselves as an androgynous gender.Nao Deguchi, the originator ofOomoto-kyō, in their later years claimed that their soul is the same as that of Amaterasu's sister, and therefore that although their body is female (i.e.変性男子;Henjōnansi [ja]), they are spiritually male.Onisaburō Deguchi, dressed as a woman, was possessed by a god.[147] Theshintai worshipped by theJikōson's sect, which arose after thewar and was banned bySupreme Commander for the Allied Powers, is considered as an androgynous deity that was a fusion ofEmperor Jimmu andAmaterasu.Sayo Kitamura, the founder ofTenshō Kōtai Jingū-kyō, claimed that the god residing in her was a single deity embodied by the male deity Kōtaijin (皇大神) and the female deity Amaterasu.[145]: 15―16
Cross-dressing has been a part of Japanese festivals (i.e.matsuri) at least since late ancient periods.Ueme (Japanese:植女) was a woman who dressed as a man for the rice planting festival. An entry in 1129 in theMinamoto no Morotoki's [ja]Chōshūki [ja] records uemes planting seedlings in the rice fields during a rice-planting festival. Sanae Fukutō speculates that similar records in 1127 fromFujiwara no Munetada's [ja]Chūyūki [ja] also suggest cross-dressing may have been involved.Dengaku also involved cross-dressing. According to a record in theSankaiki [ja] byNakayama Tadachika, whenTaira no Kiyomori visitedItsukushima Shrine in 1179, women dressed as men performed thedengaku dance inFukuhara on the way. Furthermore,Ryōjin Hishō includes animayō [ja], which sings about women's cross-dressing. Sanae Fukutō speculates that this may also have been a woman cross-dressing for a festival.[148]
このごろ都に流行る物、柳黛髪々似而非鬘しほゆき近江女女冠者、長刀持たぬ尼ぞ無き
What is in fashion in Kyōto these days: willow-leaf-thin eyebrows (ryūtai), various hairstyles, wigs (ese-kazura),shioyuki (an unknown style), courtesans fromŌmi, young women dressed as men (onna-kanza). Even nuns are not unarmed withnaginata.
— Ryōjin Hishō, 369
In Japan, cross-dressing is common in entertainment. Based on the names ofShinsarugakuki, Hirokazu Tsuji speculates that men dressed as women inSarugaku.[148] In the 13th century,yūjos [ja] andkugutsumes [ja] also began to dress as men, and the shirabyōshis and sex workers gradually merged to become the entertainers of the late Middle Ages.[148]
Large numbers of contemporary people dress up in women's clothing at some Japanese festivals in many parts of Japan, including Ose Matsuri (大瀬まつり) ofOse Shrine [ja][149] and Otaue Matsuri (御田植祭) ofIsasumi Shrine.[150] Cross-dressing used to be a common occurrence atYasaka Shrine festivals, such as theGion Matsuri.
A festival called Ofudamaki (お札撒き), in which men dressed as women scatter talismans, is held at a Yasaka Shrine inTotsuka Ward,Yokohama City,Kanagawa Prefecture. At a rite called Ikazuchi no Daihannya (雷の大般若) atShinzōin Temple [ja] (inEdogawa Ward,Tōkyō), men dressed as women parade through the town carrying a chest containing theLarge Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras. At the Ōmiyuki Matsuri (大御幸祭) held atSengen Shrine inYamanashi Prefecture, men dressed as women carry amikoshi and stomp on the embankment.Junko Mitsuhashi argues that the existence of such festivals can be explained through Sōsei Genri.[151]
Many religions are based on teachings of peace, love, and tolerance, and thus, at least based on those specific teachings, these religions promote intergroup pro-sociality. However, evidence from studies of religion and social attitudes have paradoxically revealed that religion is typically a predictor of intergroup anti-sociality, or in other words religion tends to predict most forms of prejudice. When conceptualizing religion in terms of self-reported categorical religious affiliation (i.e.,Christian,Muslim,Jewish, etc.), religiously affiliated individuals tend to report more negative attitudes against a variety of social outgroups than individuals who are not religiously affiliated. [...] In addition, mostAbrahamic religions (e.g.,Judaism,Christianity, andIslam) contain dogmas in which their respective deity create mankind with individuals who are perfectly entrenched in the gender binary (e.g.,Adam and Eve), and thus religions might be instilling cisgender normativity into individuals who ascribe to their doctrines.
Patriarchal beliefs assert the "natural"superiority of men with a right to leadership in family and public life. Such beliefs derive particularly fromAbrahamic religions. Patriarchal attitudes relating to sexual behaviour are mixed and inconsistent. They include, on one hand, the idea that as part of their natural inferiority,women are less in control of their sex drives and are therefore essentially lustful, with a constant craving for sex. This belief leads to therape myth – even when women resist sexual advances they are using it merely as a seductive device. On the other hand, patriarchal beliefs also dictate that women, in contrast to men, are naturally submissive and have little interest in sex, so men have a "natural" right to sexual intercourse whether women want it or not.
homosexuality and the Ethiopian Eunuch.
Broadly follows Claren as he risks complete excommunication from the Mormon Church for undergoing breast removal surgery ....
In a world of increasing anti-Semitism and division, Weinreb said, nobody should reject a Jew from a religious congregation or community because he or she is transgender. The rabbi also encouraged compassion for transgender people, saying he personally knew several transgender Jews who are "very sincere in their desire to worship the Almighty and to observe His Torah and mitzvot" and should be encouraged to "remain within the fold of observant Judaism". Last, the rabbi said, while "there are guidelines in our religion for how to disagree, hatred is not OK".
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