Atransducer is a device that usefullyconverts energy from one form to another.[1] Usually a transducer converts asignal in one form of energy to a signal in another.[2]Transducers are often employed at the boundaries ofautomation,measurement, andcontrol systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting oneform of energy to another is known as transduction.[3]
Transducers can be categorized by the direction information passes through them:
Asensor is a transducer that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus from a physical system.[4][5][3] It produces asignal, which represents information about the system, which is used by some type of telemetry, information orcontrol system.
Anactuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is controlled by asignal from a control system or manual control. It is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electrical system),software-based (e.g. a printer driver,robot control system), ahuman, or any other input.[3]
Bidirectional transducers can convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and electrical signals into physical phenomena. An example of an inherently bidirectional transducer is anantenna, which can convertradio waves (electromagnetic waves) into an electrical signal to be processed by aradio receiver, or translate an electrical signal from atransmitter into radio waves. Another example is avoice coil, which is used inloudspeakers to translate an electricalaudio signal intosound, and indynamic microphones to translate sound waves into an audio signal.[3]
Transceivers integrate simultaneous bidirectional functionality. The most ubiquitous example are likely radiotransceivers (calledtransponders in aircraft), used in virtually every form ofwireless (tele-)communications and network device connections. Another example isultrasound transceivers that are used for instance in medical ultrasound (echo) scans.
Passive transducers require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example, athermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric current through it, itsresistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current orvoltage across the thermistor.[6][3]
Active transducers in contrast, generate electric current in response to an external stimulus which serves as the output signal without the need of an additional energy source. Such examples are aphotodiode, and apiezoelectric sensor, photovoltaic,thermocouple.[6]
Some specifications that are used to rate transducers:
Dynamic range: This is the ratio between the largestamplitude signal and the smallest amplitude signal the transducer can effectively translate.[3] Transducers with larger dynamic range are more "sensitive" and precise.
Repeatability: This is the ability of the transducer to produce an identical output when stimulated by the same input.
Noise: All transducers add some randomnoise to their output. In electrical transducers this may beelectrical noise due to thermal motion of charges in circuits. Noise corrupts small signals more than large ones.
Hysteresis: This is a property in which the output of the transducer depends not only on its current input but its past input. For example, an actuator which uses agear train may have somebacklash, which means that if the direction of motion of the actuator reverses, there will be a dead zone before the output of the actuator reverses, caused by play between the gear teeth.
Tactile transducers – convert electrical signal into vibration (electrical signal → vibration)
Thermophones – convert electrical signals into temperature fluctuations, which become sound (electrical signal → periodic heating of a thinconductor → temperature waves → sound waves)
Piezoelectric crystals – convert deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from electrical signals
Geophones – convert a ground movement (displacement) into voltage (vibrations → motion of conductor/coil →magnetic field → signal)
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