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| Trail of Broken Treaties | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Trail of Broken Treaties Caravan Part ofAmerican Indian Movement(AIM) | |||
| Date | October–November 1972 | ||
| Location | |||
| Goals | Native Americansovereignty | ||
| Methods | Occupation protest | ||
| Parties | |||
| |||
TheTrail of Broken Treaties (also known as theTrail of Broken Treaties Caravan[1] and thePan American Native Quest for Justice[2]) was a 1972 cross-country caravan ofAmerican Indian andFirst Nations organizations that started on theWest Coast of the United States and ended at theDepartment of Interior headquarters building at the US capital of Washington, D.C. Participants called for the restoration of tribes’ treaty-making authority, the abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and federal investment in jobs, housing, and education.[3]
The protest inspired sizable gatherings of Native Americans throughout the journey, with the caravan described as "over four miles long and included some 700 activists from more than 200 tribes and 25 states" when it leftSaint Paul, Minnesota, forWashington, D.C..[4]
The eight organizations that sponsored the caravan included theAmerican Indian Movement (AIM), the CanadianNational Indian Brotherhood (later renamed theAssembly of First Nations),[5] theNative American Rights Fund, theNational Indian Youth Council, theNational American Indian Council, the National Council on Indian Work, National Indian Leadership Training, and the American Indian Committee on Alcohol and Drug Abuse.[6] InMinneapolis, AIM headquarters, activists developed a Twenty-Point Position paper to define their demands.[7][8]
The 1960s were a period of increasing activism by American Indians (and First Nations in Canada) as they worked to renew civil rights and improve relations with federal governments that had repeatedly failed to satisfy treaty obligations. By this time numerous American Indians were living in urban settings, encouraged to relocate from reservations by the federal government in an effort to find more work opportunities, but often isolated by discrimination, poor educations in public schools, police harassment, and limited work. The lengthy occupation ofAlcatraz by student activists fromSan Francisco and the founding of theAmerican Indian Movement (AIM) in 1968 inMinneapolis, Minnesota, by mostlyOjibwe activists were examples of rising activism.
To raise national awareness of issues related to Indian-federal relations, AIM and other organizations conceived a cross-country caravan to promote their cause. Protesters joined portions of the caravan in West Coast cities: Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, which they departed on October 6,[4] by bus and auto.[1] The three caravans merged in Minneapolis, Minnesota[9] where leaders drafted a Twenty-Point proposal of demands.[8] The caravan reachedWashington, D.C. in early November, the week before the presidential election (in which incumbent President Nixonwas re-elected). The protesters had chosen this time period as best to present the next administration with "an agenda for action on Indian problems."[1] The large gathering of Native Americans in the US capital made national news as they advocated for their rights and sought to meet with government officials to negotiate a new relationship.[1]
As the eastward-bound caravan continued to swell in size, directives were issued to officials at theBureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), instructing them not to provide assistance to these groups.[10] Attempts were made to characterize the movement as an urban militant faction, detached from the beliefs held by those residing on reservations.[10][11] The caravans found widespread support as they made stops at reservations across the country, with numerous well-educated members and respected elders from these communities actively joining the movement.[10][11] Reports indicate escalating conflicts between the National Tribal Chairmen's Association (NTCA) and theNational Congress of American Indians (NCAI), with those possessing Native tribal leaders on their boards facing internal challenges and striving to salvage their standing.[11]
The extensive gathering of Native Americans in the U.S. capital garnered national attention as they fervently advocated for their rights, aiming to initiate discussions with government officials to establish a new relationship.[10] The caravan arrived in Washington, D.C., on November 3, 1972.[10] Housing arrangements fell under, forcing the protestors to spend their first night in a rat-infested church basement.[12] Despite negotiations, attempts to secure auditorium space and the use of theBureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) kitchen were denied.[13] Amidst ongoing discussions,General Services Administration guards prompted the protesters to leave, escalating tensions as police in riot gear arrived and forcibly breached windows.[13] The building was surrounded, and snipers positioned on the nearby Interior Department building.[13] Undeterred, protesters maintained their positions, marking the beginning of the "occupation" of the BIA.[13] A banner proclaiming "Native American Embassy" adorned the building's facade, with a teepee erected on the front lawn, designating the property as "liberated territory,".[14]
During their occupation, protesters spent days scrutinizing and retrieving files that brought to light concerns about unjust dealings regarding land, water, fishing, and mineral rights.[10][11] Simultaneously, some individuals seized artifacts, pottery, and artwork, contending that these items rightfully belonged to various tribes.[13][11] The standoff concluded a week later when the protesters consented to engaging in serious negotiations regarding their Twenty-Point thesis,[12] signifying the end of the occupation. Subsequently, the caravan received $65,500, intended for travel and food expenses, to be divided among all participants.[13][11] Notably, this funding was allocated from theOffice of Economic Opportunity (OEO), with money that was originally designated for other Native American initiatives.[11] While amnesty was granted to all protesters, it did not extend to cover damages incurred at the federal government building during the occupation.[15] The federal government finally appointed a negotiator and agreed to appoint a Native American to a post within the BIA.[16]
As the caravan dispersed, government officials maintained a resistant posture. The Nixon Administration, having refused to meet the protesters during the occupation, continued to distance themselves from the demands outlined in the Twenty-Point Position paper.[10] Despite the momentum generated by the caravan and the subsequent negotiations, there was limited acknowledgment or tangible action taken by the government to address the issues raised by the activists.[10]
The aftermath of the Trail of Broken Treaties revealed ongoing tensions between federally affiliated indigenous organizations. The accusations of corruption and internal conflicts within groups like the National Tribal Chairmen's Association (NTCA) and theNational Congress of American Indians (NCAI) persisted,[11] reflecting a broader struggle for representation and influence within the Native American community.
While the government appointed a negotiator and agreed to appoint a Native American to a post within the BIA as part of the resolution,[10][11] the broader systemic issues and demands outlined by the activists received limited attention.[10] The federal response after the caravan dissolution showcased the complexities and challenges inherent in advocating for Native American rights and policy reform during this pivotal period of activism. The Trail of Broken Treaties, though impactful, highlighted the ongoing struggle for meaningful change and justice for Native American communities.
The Nixon Administration offered a lukewarm response to the Twenty-Point Paper.[10] While a significant portion of the demands centered on reinstating the practice of making treaties on a tribal or regional basis to delineate the specific rights of Indian tribes, the administration asserted its inability to overturn the legislation from the 1924Indian Citizenship Act.[10] Citing this legal framework, the administration contended that the U.S. government cannot engage in treaty-making with its own citizens.[10]
While the demonstration was widely covered by national media, including increasingly important television reporting, the media largely focused on issues related to the federal government, rather than what the protesters identified as failures of the government and their stressing tribal sovereignty as the basis for seeking new relations and negotiations. Having captured media attention, AIM organized additional demonstrations to advocate for Native American justice, such as theWounded Knee Occupation protest beginning in February 1973.[17]
The Trail of Broken Treaties Caravan, a seminal moment in Native American activism during the early 1970s, left an enduring impact that rippled through subsequent decades. This cross-country journey and the subsequent occupation of theBureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) building elevated the visibility of Native American challenges, spotlighting broken treaties and socio-economic struggles. The unity displayed during the caravan empowered indigenous communities, fostering a collective strength that fueled future collaborative efforts. The legacy of the Trail of Broken Treaties lives on in the continued advocacy efforts within Native American communities, inspiring subsequent generations to engage in social and political movements. This historic event remains a testament to the resilience and determination of indigenous communities in their ongoing pursuit of justice, sovereignty, and cultural preservation.[improper synthesis?][citation needed]
The Twenty-Point Position Paper was drafted by rights activistHank Adams[18] a participant in the Trail of Broken Treaties. The paper was intended to assert thesovereignty of the Indian Nations and to re-open treaty negotiations:[7]
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