tornionlaaksolaiset (Meänkieli) | |
|---|---|
.svg) Flag of Tornedalians | |
 Man fromKolari in traditional clothing. | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Sweden | 40,000-150,000[1][2][3] |
| Languages | |
| Meänkieli,Finnish andSwedish | |
| Religion | |
| Lutheranism (Laestadianism) | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Kvens,Peräpohjalaiset,Finns,Karelians | |
Tornedalians (Meänkieli:tornionlaaksolaiset;Finnish:tornionjokilaaksolaiset;Swedish:tornedalingar) are anethnicminority native to theMeänmaa (Torne Valley) region in northernSweden andFinland.[4] Tornedalians may refer to themselves using several different terms, though most commonly asTornedalians,Kvens orLantalaiset.[4][5] Tornedalians were officially recognized as anational minority in Sweden in 2000.[6]
The English wordTornedalian derives from the Swedish name for theTorne Valley,Tornedalen. The Swedish word Tornedalen in turn derives from the archaic Finnic wordtornio meaningspear and the Swedish worddal which means valley.[7]
Tornedalians use several different terms to refer to themselves.[4][5] The term Tornedalian (Tornionlaaksolainen, pl.Tornionlaaksolaiset) originally refers specifically to someone living along the lower course of theTorne river, beginning roughly inPajala municipality. The term has come to be used to denote all 'Tornedalians'.[8][9] Lantalaiset (sl.Lantalainen; lit. "fertiliser/settled people")[10] typically live in the further inland areas ofSwedish andFinnish Lapland, known asLannanmaa by Lantalaiset. The parts of Sweden inhabited by Lantalaiset largely correspond to the area known in Swedish asMalmfälten.[11][8][12]
The term Kvenhas a disputed etymology. It appears for the first time inOhthere of Hålogaland's 9th century accounts of northern Europe and is used mostly in Norwegian and Icelandic sources to refer to Tornedalians.[13] With the integration of Meänmaa into Sweden the term fell into disuse in the Torne valley, though continued to be used amongNorwegians Kvens.[13] In Meänmaa the term featured in some traditional tales but was not actively used.[14] Since the 1990s the term has been revived in Meänmaa[13] and is especially commonly used by Lantalaiset.[15] The term is also very common in theKaresuando (Karesuanto) area.[9]
The somewhat derogatory Swedish termsbyfinne (pl. byfinnar, lit. 'village Finns') andlappfinne (pl. lappfinnar, lit. 'Sámi Finns') have historically been used to describe the Meänkieli-speaking population in theGällivare area.[16] While the termlappfinne has fallen out of use, the term byfinne is still used.[17]
Terms such as meänmaalaiset (lit.people of our land), meikäläiset (lit.people like us) and Kven (kvääni/kveeni) are used natively to refer to Tornedalians as a whole. Ultimately, there is no internal consensus on the use of any one term.[18][19][9] Historically the termFinn has been used to denote all Tornedalians. While some Tornedalians will sometimes use the term Finn and Finnish, in contexts where being Tornedalians is implied, the term can be offensive to some.[20][21] In a historical context the terms Finn and Finnish are sometimes still used.
These different terms/groups are not necessarily exclusive, and some may identify with multiple.[22]
Meänkieli, or Tornedalian, is the language or dialect spoken by Tornedalians. While Meänkieli is recognised in Sweden as one of thecountry's five minority languages, its status as an independent language is sometimes disputed due to its high mutual intelligibility with Finnish. It belongs to theUralic language family.[23]
Finnic populations first began settling in the northern reaches of theBay of Bothnia during theViking Age, which previously would have likely been solely inhabited by theSámi.[24][13] While the earliest mentions of Kvens come from the account ofOhthere of Hålogaland in the 800s,[25] the first certain evidence of Finnic populations in the Torne valley comes from the 1000s.[26][27] Finnic settlement in theBothnian Bay likely extended as far as thePite andLule Rivers by the 1100s and 1200s.[28][29] Localtoponomy indicates early Finnic populations in the area were made up ofTavastians andKarelians.[30] These may have formed theancient Kvens, which are often considered ancestors of todays Tornedalians and Kvens,[31][13] though the connection between the ancient Kvens and modern Tornedalians and Kvens has been disputed.[32]
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In 1323, in the aftermath of theTreaty of Nöteborg, the government of KingMagnus Eriksson of Sweden decreed that all land fromHälsingland to theUle River would be free for settlement and that all those who did would be exempt from taxes until 1340. Only five years later in 1328 a legal hearing was held inTälje as thebirkarls, local Tornedalian tradesmen and representatives, disputed the right of the Hälsings (Swedes) to colonise the area. While the case was ruled in the favour of the birkarls andSámi, and again re-confirmed in 1358 by kingErik Magnusson,[33] Swedish expansion northwards would nonetheless encroach on Tornedalian lands.[29] Likewise the rights of the birkarls to conduct trade would over the centuries be curtailed by Sweden which sought to establish control over the lucrative and well-developed northern trade.[33] During the 1300s two churches would be erected onPirkkiö and nearKemi respectively. These early churches were however primarily constructed with the aim of establishing the administrative boundaries of the archdioceses ofUppsala andTurku, and did not serve to actually christianise the area.[27]
Tensions between Sweden andMuscovy at the end of the 1400s would lead to the establishment of new churches in the northern Bothnian area and the replacement of old wooden churches with stone fortress-churches. These would serve to establish further Swedish influence over the area, however their success in christianising the Tornedalian populace during the 1500s is uncertain.[27]
At the beginning of the 16th century there were around thirty villages in Meänmaa paying taxes to Sweden.[34]
Gustav Vasa would play a pivotal role in the decline of the Birkarls doubling the tithes owed to the crown in 1528, beginning to tax their homesteads in 1543 and in 1554 he revoked their right to collect taxes, instead assigning the duty to agents of the crown.[35]
In the mid 1500s the local birkarl-chieftain and the king's local bailif, called Olof Anundsson by the Swedes, would repeatedly be accused of misconduct for refusing to visit church, deriding the authority of God and the Church, and mocking God's word.[27]
In 1584King Johan III had signed a decree'regarding the protection of the inhabitants of the Lappmark from the intrusions of the Torne-peasants'. According to the document the right to fish in the inland lakes of northern Sweden and Finland would fall exclusively to those who lived closest by them. Because of this Sámi families which lived in the area could take over fishing lakes and hunting grounds formerly in the hands of Tornedalian families. The inland fishing was vital to Tornedalian livelihood at the time and this would along with an increasing population over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries lead many to settle permanently in the inland, in contrast to previously when the areas had only been seasonally inhabited by Tornedalians. Those who settled permanently in the inland would come to be known asLantalaiset. During this era relations between Sámi and Tornedalians continued to be overall positive despite increasingly predatory Swedish involvement. Most conflict was Tornedalian-Tornedalian or Sámi-Sámi and land disputes between the groups were uncommon.[36]
Charles IX would impose strict regulations on when, where and how the birkarls could trade and travel in general inLappmarken. In the end the situation would become untenable and by 1620 the birkarls had ceased to exist as an entity.[33][35] Despite their previously privileged status in Tornedalian society very few birkarls would becomeburghers, instead remaining as part of the peasantry.[35] Simultaneously the turn of the 17th century would see the Church establish itself in Meänmaa; the later 1500s had shown the failure of the Swedish church in the Meänmaa and in 1606 the church administration in the area was reformed. It is from this period which the last known pagan burials are known and Christianity is established clearly as the dominant religion.[27]
Following theTreaty of Fredrikshamn betweenSweden andRussia in 1809, all Swedish lands east of theTorne,Muonio andKönkämä rivers were ceded to Russia as theGrand Duchy of Finland. The split region continued to be culturally homogenous, so the border had little immediate impact on people's everyday lives.[37][38] In time however the border would have a notable linguistic and cultural impact. Today Finnish Tornedalians typically do not consider their speech a separate language despite many speaking what otherwise could be considered Meänkieli.[39]
During the 1800s Tornedalians became the targets of extensive so-called "racial biology" andSwedification policies, and many Tornedalian andSámi graves were plundered at the behest of priests.[40][41]Lars Levi Læstadius himself participated in the process of plundering graves.[42]
1886 saw the introduction of the firstSwedish Reindeer Herding Act, which prohibited non-Sámi from herding reindeer. The law likewise restricted the rights of non-members ofSamebyar to winter pastures, hunting, and fishing. Tornedalians thus had to 'lease' their own reindeer to vested Sámi herders. This state of affairs has largely been repeated in the Reindeer Herding Acts of 1898, 1928 and 1971.[34]
In 1888 Swedish was made the sole language of civil life, as well as the only language taught in schools.[43][44] No outright ban was ever instituted in Finland, but those who spoke the language were discriminated against.[45] After the1902 Norrbotten famine, "work cabins" were established in Norrbotten in the fashion ofboarding schools with the stated goal of providing food, lodging and education to children from the sparsely populated region.[46] Here, teachers would work toforcefully assimilate Tornedalian children; abuse was rampant.[47][48][49] In the early to mid 1900's,Herman Lundborg from theState Institute for Racial Biology performedskull measurements on Tornedalians in 1913, which continued into the 1950s.[50] The ban on speaking Meänkieli in school was revoked by theRiksdag in 1957.[51] AtFurunäset Hospital and Asylum (1893-1987) inPiteå, Tornedalian women were sterilised, were forced to have abortions, and were subjected to other invasive surgeries.[52]
During the 1970s and 80s a Tornedalian movement would form. In 1981The National Association of Swedish Tornedalians (STR-T) would form and in 1992 the first Meänkieli dictionary was written.[39][53]
In 2000, a new law went into effect recognising the Tornedalians as an official national minority and Meänkieli as anofficial minority language. Atruth and reconciliation commission on historical discrimination against the population was appointed in 2020, and made its final report on 15 May 2023.[51] In both 2020 and 2023, STR-T, the National Association of Swedish Tornedalians demanded the Swedish government to investigate their status as anindigenous people in accordance withILO 169, although both times the Swedish government has denied to do so.[54]
In 2024 the remains of 23 Tornedalian and Sámi people (6 of which children) previously buried atAkamella cemetery, nearMuodoslompolo, were repatriated. The remains, which had been plundered in 1878, are the first remains of Tornedalian people to be repatriated.[55][56]
Christianity first gained a foothold in the region in the 1400's. By the 1600's it had come to be the dominant religion displacing earlierpagan beliefs.[27] Many pagan beliefs would continue throughout thechristianisation and afterwards. Jopmel/Jobmel was a key figure in Tornedalian beliefs, along with figures such as Hiisi, Perhana, Veen neiti, Jatuni, and others.[14] According to traditional beliefs, asaivo is a special kind of holy "double-bottomed" lake which can act as a portal to the land of the dead.[57][58] Thejänkkäsilmä (lit. 'eye of the bog') was a similarly holy feature in nature, which could likewise transport a person to the other life or through time.[14]
Thenoita, the same as the Sáminoaidi, was a traditionalshaman.[59][60] During the 1600s and 1700s when Christianity became dominant in Meänmaa the noita largely lost his importance as a religious figure and became primarily a keeper oftraditional medical knowledge.[59]
A significant religious shift would come to Meänmaa in the mid-1800s when the Swedish priestLars Levi Læstadius began preaching his beliefs in the area. Læstadius spoke Sami but had no knowledge of Meänkieli when he first came to the area in the 1820s. While he first attempted to communicate via the Finnish he had learnt from a book, though he soon found that the local speech was rather different from "proper Finnish" and thus resolved to learn the language first-hand, travelling between different homes and villages and talking to many citizens. Læstadius gained great popularity in Meänmaa, though especially in his earlier years his devout belief intemperance caused trouble.[61] When he died in 1861,Johan Raattamaa [sv] took up the mantle as spiritual leader of the movement. After his death in 1899 the movement splintered, thoughLæstadianism remains an important part of much of Tornedalian society.[62][63]
During the 1930s, theKorpela Movement gripped Meänmaa. It taught thatGod would soon make a crystal bridge toPalestine where a utopia would be established. The movement was much more lenient with the consumption of alcohol and extramarital sexual relations. It became popular with lantalaiset. The movement's heyday came to an end in 1939/1940 when the last of its preachers were jailed but its beliefs have had a lasting impact in Meänmaa.[64][65]
Liikutukset is an important practice of Tornedalian/Kven Læstadianism. The word roughly translates as 'movements' and involves moving about in a state ofreligious ecstasy often involving hopping, clapping, dancing, shouting praise, singing and similar activities.[66][65]
Sweden does not distinguish minority groups inpopulation censuses. The number of people who identify themselves as "Tornedalians" is usually estimated to be between 30,000 and 150,000. Estimates are complicated by the fact that the remote and sparsely populatedTornedalen area has been particularly struck by the 20th-centuryurbanisation andunemployment. In 2006, a large radio survey about Finnish/Meänkieli speakers was conducted in Sweden. The result was that 469,000 individuals in Sweden claimed to understand or speak Finnish and/or Meänkieli. Those who can speak or understand Meänkieli are estimated to be 150,000–175,000.[citation needed]
Traditional men's clothing was distinguished by the so-calledlångkolt (Swedish for "longgákti") along with a sort of blue or black hat typically adorned with red seams,[36] often called a kairalakki.[67] During winter thepeski might be used over the långkolt.[68] Blue and red were the most common colours but also black, yellow, grey and green featured commonly.[36] Women often worekirtles and short jackets, with acoif orhuivi which is a sort ofhead scarf.[36][69] What in Swedish is called anäbbsko (beak-shoe) is the traditional footwear used by Tornedalians. They are typically made ofreindeer orcow hide. Winter shoes are known asnutukka, while summer shoes are known as paulakengät or vuotakengät.[70][71] Historically, wealthier Lantalaiset sometimes wore Sámi silver belts.[36] Because ofSwedification little of this fashion has survived.
In 1912 a Swedish commission inLuleå, inspired by theromantic nationalism of the era, set about designing folk costumes forNorrbotten. It was then that the current Torne valley costume (Swedish:Tornedalsdräkt) was designed. The Torne valley dress was used in both schools and work camps and became very widespread. Today it has become a pillar of Tornedalian women's fashion.[72][73][74] The men's dress seems to have never caught on.Silver andtin are commonly used in jewelry.[74]
The oldest works of native Tornedalian literature known today are tworunic songs byAntti Keksi [fi] The first and most famous concerns the ice discharge of 1677, which brought massive carnage to Torne valley at the time. It was written down roughly 100 years after its composition and at the time accredited to his grandson Josef. The second surviving runic song by Keksi is much less famous and concerns the priest Nicolaus.[75]
In 1944, despite the existing ban on Meänkieli,William Snell (1895-1980) wrote the first book in the language titledKamaripirtiltä: muisteluksia Tornion murtheela. In 1947 he would go on to writeTornionlaakson laulu (Swedish:Tornedalssången; English:Torne Valley song) which today is considered almost a "national anthem" of sorts among Tornedalians. The work of William Snell preceded the cultural renaissance of the 1980s and would become very influential.[76][77]
Bengt Pohjanen is one of the most prolific Tornedalian authors. In 1985 he wroteLyykeri (English:Luger) the first novel in Meänkieli and has since written books, dramas, screenplays, songs and opera. He is trilingual in his writing.[78][79][80]
The novelPopular Music from Vittula (2000) by the Tornedalian authorMikael Niemi became very popular both in Sweden and in Finland. It is composed of colourful stories of everyday life in the Tornedalian town ofPajala. The novel has been adapted for several stage productions, and asa film in 2004.
The firstfeature length movie in Meänkieli premiered in 2025. TitledLiikheitä in Meänkieli (English:Raptures; Swedish:Rörelser; Finnish:Valitut), it follows the rise and fall of the Korpela movement. It is directed byJon Blåhed [sv] and based on Bengt Pohjanen's bookDagning; Röd!.[81][82]
The flag is a horizontaltricolour of yellow, white and blue. The flag was designed in 2007 by the organisationMeänmaa Tinkerit. The design references a quote credited to a Tornedalian woman as the border was being drawn: "The summer-blue sky, you cannot cut in two; Nor the white winter field can you part; And neither can you divide the clear yellow sun! That which you cannot cut in twain shall forever remain." or alternatively "You may gladly draw a line in the earth, but the air, sun and land - that you can never cut in two." TheNordic cross is not present on the flag as "No crusaders have we ever been".[83][84] The flag initially faced some criticism as it was seen by some as anationalist symbol.[84]
TheMeänmaa Flag Day is celebrated on July 15.[85][86]
Lantalaiset and Kvens typically use theKven flag instead, designed in 2009 by Bengt Johansson-Kyrö. The Kven flag day is March 16th.[87][88]