 | Some of this article'slisted sourcesmay not bereliable. Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.(October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
.jpg)
Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam, also known asToṇḍai Nāḍu, is a historical region located in the northernmost part ofTamil Nadu and southernmost part ofAndhra Pradesh.[1] Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam was divided into 24kottams — smaller districts bykurumbar king and also build a royal fort(pulhal) .the kottams are subdivided into smaller agricultural districts callednadus, which were groupings of several agricultural villages. At the beginning of the historical period, thekottams were mostlypastoral.later,The region comprises the districts which formed a part of the legendary kingdom ofAthondai Chakravarti. The boundaries of Tondaimandalam are ambiguous – between the river basins ofPenna River andPonnaiyar River. During the reign ofRajaraja I, this region was called asJayankonda Cholamandalam.[2]
In general, the region of Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam comprised thedrainage basins of three main river systems: theArani in the north, theKortallaiyar in the middle, and thePalar-Cheyyar-Veghavati system in the south. The northern border of Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam was roughly aroundPulicat Lake, while its southern border was somewhere north of thePeṇṇai river.[3]: 188, 203
Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam also included thePerumbāṇappāḍi chieftaincy in the northwest. South of Perumbāṇappāḍi, a portion of the region known asPangaḷanaḍu was also included as part of Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam. To the southwest, south of Pangaḷanaḍu, Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam bordered theVāṇakōppāḍi chieftaincy. In the south, Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam bordered the region ofNaḍuvilnāḍu.[3]: 188, 203
In today's terms, Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam covers theNellore,Chittoor,North andSouth Arcot andChingleput districts of theAndhra andMadras states.Chennai was part of the region.[1]
The core area covers the present day areas ofNellore,Chittoor,Tirupati,Annamayya,Vellore,Ranipet,Tirupattur,Tiruvannamalai,Villupuram,Tiruvallur,Kanchipuram,Chengalpattu,andChennai districts of modern-dayAndhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu.
Historically, Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam was divided into 24kōṭṭams — smaller districts that were further subdivided into smaller agricultural districts callednāḍus, which were groupings of several agricultural villages. At the beginning of the historical period, thekōṭṭams were mostlypastoral, but they gradually became more agricultural over time. From the 7th through the 12th centuries in particular, the number of attestednāḍus in Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam steadily increases, corresponding with an expansion inirrigation works in the area.[3]: 188, 90
Although Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam was stated (in later records) to have 24kōṭṭams, only 22 are actually attested from contemporary sources (the number 24 may just be a "conventional" one).[4]: 120–1 The 22 knownkōṭṭams of Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam are as follows:[3]: 186 [note 1]
Neolithic burial urns,cairn circles and jars with burials dating to the very dawn of thecommon era have been discovered near Mamallapuram. The area was part of theDravida kingdom mentioned in theMahabharata.[5] It then came under the rule ofEarly Cholas during first century CE with the capital of Tondai Nadu asKanchipuram. HistorianS. Krishnaswami Aiyengar and theProceedings of the First Annual Conference of South Indian History Congress note: The wordTondai means a creeper and the termPallava conveys a similar meaning.[6][7] In the 3rd century CE, Tondai Nadu was ruled byIlandiraiyan, the first king with the title "Tondaiman", whomP. T. Srinivasa Iyengar identifies with aPallava prince.[8][9] Pallavas moved southwards, adopted local traditions to their own use, and named themselves as Tondaiyar after the land called Tondai.[7][10][self-published source?] The medieval Pallavas ruled Andhra and NorthernTamil Nadu, from the 4th to the 9th centuries, with their seat of capital at ancient Kanchipuram.
In early historical times, At 1st century kurumba(shepheard people) are lived and ruled over the land.that time Tondaimandalam appears to have been a predominantlypastoral region, with comparatively little settled agriculture. Large hilly tracts and dense forests broke the countryside up into smaller pockets of farmland, which could only support relatively small, dispersed settlements. The main source on Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam's geography during this early period is thePerumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai, a poem writtenc. 190-200 CE and counted as part of the classicalSangam literature. Its description of the region "points to large tracts of unsettled land, forest and hilly regions, with few settlements and still fewer big ones". On the other hand, Pallava-era inscriptions frequently mention cattle, either as gifts to temples or as the target for raids, indicating that a significant proportion of the local population was engaged in animal husbandry.[3]: 188, 203
It was under the early medieval Pallavas that intensive agriculture and urbanisation began to spread in Toṇḍaimaṇḍalam. The process continued well into the Chola period. The first phase was one of "agrarian expansion", where irrigation works, crop rotation, increased organisation, and an expansion in cultivated area were employed to convert subsistence-agriculture villages into surplus-oriented ones (calledūrs). This process appears to have initially begun withbrahmadeya villages, i.e. villages given as tax-free grants toBrahmins, in the 7th through 9th centuries. These grants were "invariably accompanied by irrigation works" and involved "elaborate arrangements for their upkeep bysabhās or Brahmin assemblies". Inscriptions from this period record details like demarcation of land boundaries, provision of desilting or repair works for irrigation facilities, and the number and type of crops to be grown. In the 9th and 10th centuries, land grants to temples also became a major catalyst for agricultural expansion. Once implemented, the agricultural innovations that were originally intended to sustain large populations in brahmadeyas and temple centres were expanded to other villages not affiliated with any sort of grant because there was a major economic incentive to do so.[3]: 188–90
By the 9th century, commercial exchange among theūrs had grown to a point where new market centres were needed. Commerce from the 7th through 9th centuries was mostly designed to serve the royal court at Kanchipuram, and was mostly done at Kanchipuram and its royal port ofMāmallapuram.[3]: 191, 93
It was captured by the Medieval Chola kingAditya I (ruled c. 871–907 CE), who defeated the armies of the Pallava rulerAparajitavarman (880–897) in about 890.[11] and claimed all of Tondai Nadu as Chola territory.[12] During the reign ofUttama Chola most of Tondaimandalam had been recovered from theRashtrakutas.[13] The province was renamedJayamkonda Cholamandalam during the reign of KingRaja Raja Chola I (985–1014),[14][15] In about 1218, the Pandya kingMaravarman Sundara Pandyan (1216–1238) invaded the kingdom. It was stopped by the intervention of the Hoysala kingVira Narasimha II (1220–1235), who fought on the side of the Chola kingKulothunga Chola III.[16][17]Pandyan emperorJatavarman Sundara Pandyan I conquered Tondaimandalam till Nellore includingKadapa after defeatingNellore Choda rulerVijaya Gandagopala and Ganapati II of Kakatiyas in 1258 CE. Tondaimandalam came under Madurai Sultanate after the fall ofPandyan Empire in 1323 CE.
This region was then a part ofVijayanagara Empire, first ruling fromHampi and then headquartered atChandragiri in present-dayAndhra Pradesh. The earliest inscriptions attesting to Vijayanagara rule are those ofKumara Kampana, who defeated theMadurai Sultanate in 1361.[18] from 1364 and 1367, which were found in the precincts of the Kailasanathar Temple and Varadharaja Perumal Temple respectively.[18] TheVijayanagara rulers who controlled the area, appointed chieftains known asNayaks who ruled over the different regions of the province almost independently. Throughout the second half of the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, theAravidu Dynasty tried to maintain a semblance of authority in the southern parts after losing their northern territories in theBattle of Talikota.[18]
Venkata II (1586–1614) tried to revive the Vijayanagara Empire, but the kingdom relapsed into confusion after his death and rapidly fell apart after the Vijayanagara kingSriranga III's defeat by the Golconda and Bijapur sultanates in 1646.[18] TheNawabdom of the Carnatic was established by theMughal EmperorAurangzeb, who in 1692 appointedZulfiqar Ali Khan as the firstNawab of theCarnatic. The area saw Maratha rule during the Carnatic period in 1724 and 1740, and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1742.[19] It was formally annexed by theBritish East India Company as per theDoctrine of Lapse after the death ofGhulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan. During the British Rule, the whole region was a part of theMadras Presidency.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)