| Tomahawk | |
|---|---|
 A BGM-109 Tomahawk flying in November 2002 | |
| Type | Cruise missile Anti-ship missile[1] (Block V & TASM variants) Submarine-launched cruise missile Land-attack missile Surface-to-surface missile[2] |
| Place of origin | United States |
| Service history | |
| In service | 1983–present |
| Used by | SeeOperators |
| Production history | |
| Manufacturer | General Dynamics (initially) McDonnell Douglas Hughes Aircraft Company Raytheon Missiles & Defense |
| Unit cost | |
| Specifications | |
| Mass | 2,900 lb (1,300 kg), 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) with booster |
| Length |
|
| Diameter | 20.4 in (0.52 m) |
| Wingspan | 8 ft 9 in (2.67 m) |
| Warhead | BGM-109A:W80nuclear warhead (yield 5 to 200 kilotonnes of TNT (21 to 837 TJ)) (retired)[6][7] BGM-109C/E: WDU-36/B 690 pounds (310 kg) unitary warhead containing 265 pounds (120 kg) ofPBXN-107 high explosive[8] |
Detonation mechanism | FMU-148 since TLAM Block III, others for special applications |
| Engine | Williams InternationalF107-WR-402turbofan usingTH-dimer fuel and asolid-fuel rocket booster |
Operational range | Block II TLAM-N – 1,350 nmi (1,550 mi; 2,500 km) Block III TLAM-C, Block IV TLAM-E – 900 nmi (1,000 mi; 1,700 km) Block Vb – >900 nmi (>1036 mi; >1666 km) (exact range is classified)[10] RGM/UGM-109B TASM – 250 miles, 460 km[11] |
| Flight altitude | 98–164 ft (30–50 m)AGL[12] |
| Maximum speed | Subsonic; ~Mach 0.74. about 570 mph (500 kn; 920 km/h) |
Guidance system | GPS,INS,TERCOM,DSMAC,active radar homing (RGM/UGM-109B) |
Launch platform | Mark 41 Vertical Launching System Torpedo tubes Surface ships Submarines TELs |
TheBGM-109 TomahawkLand Attack Missile (TLAM) is an American long-range, all-weather, jet-powered,subsoniccruise missile that is used by theUnited States Navy,Royal Australian Navy, Royal Netherlands Navy andRoyal Navy in ship and submarine-based land-attack operations.
Developed at theApplied Physics Laboratory ofJohns Hopkins University under James H. Walker near Laurel, Maryland, the Tomahawk emerged in the 1970s as a modular cruise missile first manufactured byGeneral Dynamics. Early tests of the missile took place between 1983 and 1993, during which time 23 cruise missiles were tested over northern Canada under the "Canada–U.S. Test and Evaluation Program". The goal of the program was to simulate the climate and terrain similar to that of the northern Soviet Union, and to allow the North American Aerospace Defence Command (NORAD) to develop an anti-cruise capability.[13] The Tomahawk aimed to fulfill the need for a medium- to long-range, low-altitude missile with diverse capabilities. Its modular design allows for compatibility with a range of warheads, including high-explosive, submunitions, and bunker-busters. The Tomahawk can use a variety of guidance systems, includingGPS,inertial navigation, andterrain contour matching. Over a dozen variants and upgraded versions have been developed since the original design, including air-, sub-, and ground-launched configurations with both conventional and nuclear armaments. The Tomahawk's manufacturing history has seen several transitions. General Dynamics served as the sole supplier in the 1970s. From 1992 until 1994,McDonnell Douglas was the sole supplier of Tomahawks, producing Block II and Block III versions and remanufacturing many Tomahawks to Block III specifications.[14] In 1994,Hughes Aircraft, having purchased General Dynamics' missile division in 1992, outbid McDonnell Douglas to become the sole supplier of Tomahawks.[15][16] A joint venture between Hughes andRaytheon manufactured the missile from 1995 until Raytheon's acquisition of Hughes in 1997, solidifying their position as the sole supplier.[17][18] In 2016, the US Department of Defense purchased 149 Tomahawk Block IV missiles for $202.3 million.[3] As of 2024[update], Raytheon remains the sole manufacturer of non-nuclear, sea-launched Tomahawk variants.[19]
The variants and multiple upgrades to the missile include:
BGM-109G Gryphon Ground Launched Cruise Missiles (GLCM) and their truck-like launch vehicles were employed at bases in Europe; they were withdrawn from service to comply with the 1987Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.[9] Many of the anti-ship versions were converted into TLAMs at the end of theCold War.[20] The Block III TLAMs that entered service in 1993 can fly farther using their newturbofan engines[9] and useGlobal Positioning System (GPS) receivers to strike more precisely.[20] Block III TLAM-Cs retain the Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC) II navigation system, allowing three kinds of navigation: GPS-only, which allow for rapid mission planning, with some reduced accuracy, DSMAC-only, which take longer to plan but terminal accuracy is somewhat better; and GPS-aided missions that combine DSMAC II and GPS navigation for greatest accuracy.[9] Block IV TLAMs have an improved turbofan engine that allows them to get better fuel economy and change speeds in flight.[9] The Block IV TLAMs can loiter better and have electro-optical sensors that allow real-time battle damage assessment.[9] The Block IVs can be given a new target in flight and can transmit an image, viasatcom, immediately before impact to help determine whether the missile is on target and the likely damage from the attack.[9]
A major improvement to the Tomahawk isnetwork-centric warfare-capabilities, using data from multiple sensors (aircraft,UAVs, satellites, foot soldiers, tanks, ships) to find its target. It will also be able to send data from its sensors to these platforms.
Tomahawk Block II variants were all tested during January 1981 to October 1983. Deployed in 1984, some of the improvements included: an improved booster rocket, cruise missile radar altimeter, and navigation through the Digital Scene Matching Area Corellator (DSMAC).[citation needed] DSMAC was a highly accurate rudimentary AI which allowed early low power computers to navigate and precisely target objectives using cameras on board the missile. With its ability to visually identify and aim directly at a target, it was more accurate than weapons using estimated GPS coordinates. Due to the very limited computer power of the day, DSMAC did not directly evaluate the maps, but instead would compute contrast maps and then combine multiple maps into a buffer, then compare the average of those combined images to determine if it was similar to the data in its small memory system. The data for the flight path was very low resolution in order to free up memory to be used for high resolution data about the target area. The guidance data was computed by a mainframe computer which took spy satellite photos and estimated what the terrain would appear like during low level flight. Since this data would not match the real terrain exactly, and since terrain changes seasonally and with changes in light quality, DSMAC would filter out differences between maps and use the remaining similar sections in order to find its location regardless of changes in how the ground appeared. It also had an extremely bright strobe light it could use to illuminate the ground for fractions of a second in order to find its position at night, and was able to take the difference in ground appearance into account.[25]
Tomahawk Block III introduced in 1993 added time-of-arrival control and improved accuracy for Digital Scene Matching Area Correlator (DSMAC) and jam-resistantGPS, smaller, lighter WDU-36 warhead, engine improvements and extended missile's range.[24][26]
Tactical Tomahawk Weapons Control System (TTWCS) takes advantage of a loitering feature in the missile's flight path and allows commanders to redirect the missile to an alternative target, if required. It can be reprogrammed in-flight to attack predesignated targets with GPS coordinates stored in its memory or to any other GPS coordinates. Also, the missile can send data about its status back to the commander. It entered service with the US Navy in late 2004. The Tactical Tomahawk Weapons Control System (TTWCS) added the capability for limited mission planning on board the firing unit (FRU).[27]
Tomahawk Block IV introduced in 2006 adds the strike controller which can change the missile in flight to one of 15 preprogrammed alternate targets or redirect it to a new target. This targeting flexibility includes the capability to loiter over the battlefield awaiting a more critical target. The missile can also transmit battle damage indication imagery and missile health and status messages via the two-way satellite data link. Firing platforms now have the capability to plan and execute GPS-only missions. Block IV also has an improved anti-jam GPS receiver for enhanced mission performance.Block IV includes Tomahawk Weapons Control System (TTWCS), and Tomahawk Command and Control System (TC2S).[28][29][30]
On 16 August 2010, the Navy completed the first live test of the Joint Multi-Effects Warhead System (JMEWS), a new warhead designed to give the Tomahawk the same blast-fragmentation capabilities while introducing enhanced penetration capabilities in a single warhead. In the static test, the warhead detonated and created a hole large enough for the follow-through element to completely penetrate the concrete target.[31] In February 2014,US Central Command sponsored development and testing of the JMEWS, analyzing the ability of the programmable warhead to integrate onto the Block IV Tomahawk, giving the missilebunker buster effects to better penetrate hardened structures.[32]
In 2012, the USN studied applyingAdvanced Anti-Radiation Guided Missile (AARGM) technology into the Tactical Tomahawk.[33]
In 2014, Raytheon began testing Block IV improvements to attack sea and moving land targets.[34] The newpassive radar seeker will pick up the electromagneticradar signature of a target and follow it, and actively send out a signal to bounce off potential targets before impact to discriminate its legitimacy before impact.[32] Mounting the multi-mode sensor on the missile's nose would remove fuel space, but company officials believe the Navy would be willing to give up space for the sensor's new technologies.[35] The previous Tomahawk Anti-Ship Missile, retired over a decade earlier, was equipped with inertial guidance and the seeker of theHarpoon missile and there was concern with its ability to clearly discriminate between targets from a long distance, since at the time Navy sensors did not have as much range as the missile itself, which would be more reliable with the new seeker's passive detection andmillimeter-waveactive radar homing.[36][37] Raytheon estimates adding the new seeker would cost $250,000 per missile.[38] Other upgrades include asea-skimming flight path.[39][40] The first Block IV TLAMs modified with a maritime attack capability were scheduled to enter service in 2021.[41]
A supersonic version of the Tomahawk is under consideration for development with aramjet to increase its speed to Mach 3. A limiting factor to this is the dimensions of shipboard launch tubes. Instead of modifying every ship able to carry cruise missiles, the ramjet-powered Tomahawk would still have to fit within a 21-inch (530 mm) diameter and 20-foot (6.1 m) long tube.[35]
In October 2015, Raytheon announced the Tomahawk had demonstrated new capabilities in a test launch, using its onboard camera to take a reconnaissance photo and transmit it to fleet headquarters. It then entered a loitering pattern until given new targeting coordinates to strike.[42]
By January 2016,Los Alamos National Laboratory was working on a project to turn unburned fuel left over when a Tomahawk reaches its target into an additional explosive force. To do this, the missile'sJP-10 fuel is turned into afuel air explosive to combine with oxygen in the air and burn rapidly. Thethermobaric explosion of the burning fuel acts, in effect, as an additional warhead and can even be more powerful than the main warhead itself when there is sufficient fuel left in the case of a short-range target.[30][43]
_launches_a_Block_V_Tomahawk%2c_the_weapon%25E2%2580%2599s_newest_variant%2c_during_a_three_day_missile_exercise._(50702859426).jpg)
Tomahawk Block V was introduced in 2021 with improvements to navigation and in-flight targeting. Block Va, the Maritime Strike Tomahawk (MST) which allows the missile to engage a moving target at sea, and Block Vb outfitted with the JMEWS warhead for hard-target penetration, will be released after the initial batch of Block V is delivered in March 2021.[44] In 2025, a spokesperson for the U.S. Navy's Tomahawk program announced that the MST would be operational on destroyers by the end of September that year, with deployment to attack submarines to follow in FY26.[45] All Block IV Tomahawks will be converted to Block V standard, while the remaining Block III missiles will be retired and demilitarized.[46]
Tomahawk Block V have longer range and dynamic targeting with the capability to hit vessels at sea (maritime strike role). Raytheon is recertifying and modernizing the missile, extending its service life by 15 years, and resulting in the new Tomahawk Block V series:
In 2020, Los Alamos National Laboratory reported that it would usecorn ethanol to produce domestic fuel for Tomahawk missiles, which also does not require harsh acids to manufacture, compared to petroleum-based JP-10.[47]
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Each missile is stored and launched from a pressurized canister that protects it during transportation and storage, and also serves as a launch tube.[48] These canisters were racked inArmored Box Launchers (ABL), which were installed on the four reactivatedIowa-class battleshipsUSS Iowa,USS New Jersey,USS Missouri, andUSS Wisconsin. The ABLs were also installed on eightSpruance-classdestroyers, the fourVirginia-classcruisers, and the nuclear cruiserUSS Long Beach. These canisters are also invertical launching systems (VLS) in other surface ships, capsule launch systems (CLS) in the laterLos Angeles-classsubmarine andVirginia-class submarines, and in submarines'torpedo tubes.All ABL equipped ships have been decommissioned.
For submarine-launched missiles (called UGM-109s), after being ejected by gas pressure (vertically via the VLS) or by water impulse (horizontally via the torpedo tube), asolid-fuel booster is ignited to propel the missile and guide it out of the water.[49]
After achieving flight, the missile's wings are unfolded for lift, the airscoop is exposed and the turbofan engine is employed forcruise flight. Over water, the Tomahawk usesinertial guidance or GPS to follow a preset course; once over land, the missile's guidance system is aided byterrain contour matching (TERCOM). Terminal guidance is provided by the Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC) system or GPS, producing a claimedcircular error probable of about 30 feet (10 m).
The Tomahawk Weapon System consists of the missile, Theater Mission Planning Center (TMPC)/Afloat Planning System, and either the Tomahawk Weapon Control System (on surface ships) or Combat Control System (for submarines).
Several versions of control systems have been used, including:
On 18 August 2019, the United States Navy conducted a test flight of a Tomahawk missile launched from a ground-based version of theMark 41 Vertical Launch System.[50] It was the United States' first acknowledged launch of a missile that would have violated the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, from which the Trump administration withdrew on 2 August after Russia broke it.[51]
_launches_a_Tomahawk_Land_Attack_Missile_(TLAM)_toward_Iraq.jpg)
TheUnited States Army has successfully launched a Tomahawk from theTyphon missile launcher.[52]
Latest launcher is the Extreme Multi-Mission Autonomous Vehicle (X-MAV) built by Oshkosh[53]
The TLAM-D contains 166sub-munitions in 24 canisters: 22 canisters of seven each, and two canisters of six each to conform to the dimensions of the airframe. The sub-munitions are the same type of Combined Effects Munition bomblet used in large quantities by the US Air Force with theCBU-87 Combined Effects Munition. The sub-munitions canisters are dispensed two at a time, one per side. The missile can perform up to five separate target segments which enables it to attack multiple targets. However, in order to achieve a sufficient density of coverage typically all 24 canisters are dispensed sequentially from back to front.
TERCOM – Terrain Contour Matching. A digital representation of an area of terrain is mapped based on digital terrain elevation data or stereo imagery. This map is then inserted into a TLAM mission which is then loaded onto the missile. When the missile is in flight it compares the stored map data with radar altimeter data collected as the missile overflies the map. Based on comparison results the missile's inertial navigation system is updated and the missile corrects its course. TERCOM was based on, and was a significant improvement on, "Fingerprint," a technology developed in 1964 for theSLAM.[citation needed]
DSMAC – Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation. A digitized image of an area is mapped and then inserted into a TLAM mission. During the flight the missile will verify that the images that it has stored correlates with the image it sees below itself. Based on comparison results the missile's inertial navigation system is updated and the missile corrects its course.
GPS – The Tomahawk relies on theGlobal Positioning Recognition System as a guidance mechanism.
The Air Force is a former operator of the nuclear-armed version of the Tomahawk, theBGM-109G Gryphon.[54]
In November 2020, theUnited States Army selected the Tomahawk to fulfill itsMid-Range Capability (MRC), giving it a land-based long-range missile capable of striking ground and sea targets. The Army plans to use the Tomahawk alongside a ground-basedSM-6 and field them by late 2023.[55][56]
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In May 2022 the Defense Department announced a contract to buy Tomahawk missiles for the Navy, the Army, and the Marine Corps.[91]
| Number of Tomahawk missiles fired | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Operation | Target country | Year | Number |
| Gulf War | Iraq | 1991-01-17 | 288 |
| Part of Iraq disarmament | Iraq | 1993-01-17 | 46 |
| Part of Iraq disarmament | Iraq | 1993-06-26 | 23 |
| Operation Deliberate Force | Bosnia-Herzegovina | 1995-09-10 | 13 |
| Part of Iraq disarmament | Iraq | 1996-09-03 | 44 |
| Operation Infinite Reach | Afghanistan / Sudan | 1998-08-20 | 79 |
| Operation Desert Fox | Iraq | 1998-12-16 | 325 |
| NATO intervention in Yugoslavia | Yugoslavia | 1999-03-24 | 218 |
| Operation Enduring Freedom | Afghanistan | 2001-10-07 | 50 |
| 2003 invasion of Iraq | Iraq | 2003-03-20 | 802 |
| Dobley airstrike | Somalia | 2008-03-03 | 2 |
| Against an Al-Qaeda training camp in Yemen | Yemen | 2009-12-17 | 2 |
| 2011 military intervention in Libya | Libya | 2011-03-19 | 124 |
| Military intervention against ISIL | Iraq | 2014-09-23 | 47 |
| In response to anti-ship missiles fired by Houthis in Yemen | Yemen | 2016-10-13 | 5 |
| Shayrat missile strike | Syria | 2017-04-06 | 59 |
| 2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs | Syria | 2018-04-13 | 66 |
| 2024 missile strikes in Yemen | Yemen | 2024-01-11 | 135 |
| March 2025 United States attacks in Yemen | Yemen | 2025-03-15 | n/a |
| Attack on Iranian nuclear sites | Iran | 2025-06-22 | 30 |
_During_Testing_Near_the_USA_MOD_45153387.jpg)
In 1995, the US agreed to sell 65 Tomahawks to the UK for torpedo-launch from their nuclear attack submarines. The first missiles were acquired and test-fired in November 1998; allRoyal Navy fleet submarines are now Tomahawk capable, including theAstute-class.[92][93][94][95] TheKosovo War in 1999 saw the Swiftsure-classHMSSplendid become the first British submarine to fire the Tomahawk in combat. The UK subsequently bought 20 more Block III to replenish stocks.[96] The Royal Navy has since fired Tomahawks during the 2000s Afghanistan War, inOperation Telic as the British contribution to the 2003Iraq War, and duringOperation Ellamy in Libya in 2011.
In April 2004, the UK and US governments reached an agreement for the British to buy 64 of the new generation of Tomahawk missile—the Block IV orTacTom missile.[97] It entered service with the Royal Navy on 27 March 2008, three months ahead of schedule.[98] In July 2014 the US approved the sale to the UK of a further 65 submarine-launched Block IV's at a cost of US$140m including spares and support;[99] as of 2011[update] the Block III missiles were on British books at £1.1m and the Block IV at £0.87m including VAT.[100]
TheSylver Vertical Launching System on the newType 45 destroyer is claimed by its manufacturers to have the capability to fire the Tomahawk, although the A50 launcher carried by the Type 45 is too short for the weapon (the longer A70 silo would be required). Nevertheless, the Type 45 has been designed with weight and space margin for a strike-length Mk41 or Sylver A70 silo to be retrofitted, allowing Type 45 to use the TLAM Block IV if required. Both the newType 26 frigates and theType 31 frigate will be filled with strike-length Mk41 VLS.[101]
In June 2022, the UK announced it would be upgrading its Tomahawk cruise missiles to Block V standard through a £265 million contract with the US government. The missiles will be upgraded from 2024.[102]
In September 2021,Australian Prime MinisterScott Morrison announced that Australia would acquire Tomahawks for theRoyal Australian Navy's (RAN)Hobart-class air warfare destroyers.[103] In March 2023, the USState Department approved aForeign Military Sale to Australia of up 200 Block V and up to 20 Block IV missiles worth an estimated US$895 million.[104] In January 2024, the US State Department approved the sale of support equipment worth US$250 million.[105]
In December 2024, Australia'sMinister for Defence said the RAN had successfully fired its first ever Tomahawk missile. The missile was fired fromHMAS Brisbane (DDG 41), aHobart-class air warfare destroyer, making Australia the third nation, after the United States and UK, to acquire and fire the weapon.[106][107]
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
TheJapanese government is negotiating with theUS government to purchase US-made Tomahawk cruise missiles for attacking enemy bases and counterattack purposes.[108] The Japanese government decided to purchase the Tomahawk cruise missile before their domestic improved range "Type 12 surface-to-ship missile" start full-scale operation.[109] Prime MinisterFumio Kishida announced Japan will be buying 400 Tomahawk missiles.[110][111][112] They will be deployed in fiscal year 2026-27 and will serve as a bridge until the deployment of indigenous missiles like the extended rangeType 12 surface-to-ship missile and theHyper Velocity Gliding Projectile.[113]
TheUnited States Defense Security and Cooperation Agency announced on 17 November 2023 that the US State Department had approved a possible sale of up to 200 RGM-109ETomahawk Block IV and up to 200 RGM-109ETomahawk Block V LACMs to Japan for an estimated US$2.35 billion.[111]
After initial interest and planning (2005), the Dutch Ministry of Defence in 2023 confirmed ordering the ship launched- and submarine launched versions of the Tomahawk to be installed on both existing as well as future frigates & submarines.
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In 2022 plans for acquiring long-range and precision-guided weapon systems for the frigates and submarines ofThe Royal Netherlands Navy were announced as part of the Strategic Defence Review 2022, Tomahawk was identified.[114][115] In March 2023, the commander of the Royal Netherlands Navy announced that the project to acquire maritime strike capability had been approved by the Ministry of Defence, and would include both theDe Zeven Provinciën-class frigates and theWalrus-class submarines. While initially no announcement on missile type was made, the Tomahawk was confirmed as the frigates and submarines are equipped with US-standard Mark 41 Vertical Launching System, and torpedo tubes suited for launching UGM-109 Tomahawk respectively.[116][117] In April 2023, the Netherlands Ministry of Defence announced the procurement of Tomahawk missiles.[118]On 11 March 2025, the air defense and command frigate HNLMSDe Ruyter launched a Tomahawk missile for the first time. This took place off the coast of Norfolk, United States. It was the first time a Dutch naval ship fired this type of missile.[119]
According to infographics released by theRoyal Canadian Navy in 2020, the newRiver-class destroyers will be equipped with the missile.[120][121]
To comply with the 1987Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty), all nuclear and conventional ground-launchedballistic missiles, cruise missiles, andmissile launchers with ranges of 310 to 620 miles (500 to 1,000 km) (short to medium-range) and 620 to 3,420 miles (1,000 to 5,500 km) (intermediate-range) were dismantled or withdrawn from Europe by the treaty's deadline of 1 June 1991.
On 10 July 2024, a joint statement of the US andGermany was released, announcing the beginning of episodic deployments of long-range fires units with conventional warheads. Deployment will start from 2026, including Typhon missile launchers withSM-6 and Tomahawk missiles.[122] This is considered as a direct response to Russia's PresidentVladimir Putin's call to resume production and global deployment of intermediate range missiles, two weeks prior. Putin accused the United States of already producing these missiles and pointed to the development and testing of theTyphon missile launcher.[123][124] On 28 July 2024, Putin warned of aCold War-style missile crisis and threatened to deploy long-range missiles within striking distance of the West after the United States announced its intention to deploy long-range missiles in Germany.[125][126] Critics say the United States' move would trigger a newarms race.[127]
Spain was interested in acquiring the Tomahawk system in 2002 and 2005, but the order was later cancelled in 2009.[128][129]
Israel developed theSLCM version of thePopeye missile after the US government in 2000 refused anIsraeli request to purchase Tomahawk SLCMs because of internationalMissile Technology Control Regime proliferation rules.[130]
Poland expressed interest in purchasing long-range Tomahawk missiles for its future submarines in 2015.[131]
Brazilian NavyTamandaré-class frigates are fitted to launch the TLAM variant, but the vessels are not yet equipped with the missile.[132]
Ukraine is being considered as a possible operator of Tomahawk missiles, but no final decision has been made.[133][134]
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