Tom Wolfe | |
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.jpg) Wolfe in 1988 | |
| Born | Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Jr. (1930-03-02)March 2, 1930 Richmond, Virginia, U.S. |
| Died | May 14, 2018(2018-05-14) (aged 88) New York City, U.S. |
| Occupation |
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| Education | |
| Period | 1959–2016 |
| Literary movement | New Journalism |
| Notable works |
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| Spouse | [1] |
| Children | 2 |
Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Jr. (March 2, 1930 – May 14, 2018)[a] was an American author and journalist widely known for his association withNew Journalism, a style of news writing and journalism developed in the 1960s and 1970s that incorporated literary techniques. Much of Wolfe's work is satirical and centers on thecounterculture of the 1960s and issues related toclass,social status, and the lifestyles of the economic and intellectual elites ofNew York City.
Wolfe began his career as a regional newspaper reporter in the 1950s, achieving national prominence in the 1960s following the publication of such best-selling books asThe Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (an account ofKen Kesey and theMerry Pranksters) and two collections of articles and essays,The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby andRadical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers. In 1979, he published the influential bookThe Right Stuff about theMercury Seven astronauts, which was made into a 1983film of the same name directed byPhilip Kaufman.
His first novel,The Bonfire of the Vanities, published in 1987, was met with critical acclaim and also became a commercial success. Its adaptation as amotion picture of the same name, directed byBrian De Palma, was a critical and commercial failure.
Wolfe was born on March 2, 1930, inRichmond, Virginia, the son of Helen Perkins Hughes Wolfe, a garden designer, and Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Sr. (1893–1972), anagronomist and editor ofThe Southern Planter.[2][3]
He grew up on Gloucester Road in the Richmond North Side neighborhood ofSherwood Park. He recounted childhood memories in a foreword to a book[which?] about the nearby historic Ginter Park neighborhood. He was student council president, editor of the school newspaper, and a star baseball player atSt. Christopher's School, anEpiscopal all-boys school in Richmond.[4] In 1991, he wrote another touching remembrance of his childhood in Sherwood Park in a letter to a man who purchased the Wolfe home place.[5]
Upon graduating in 1947, he turned down an offer to enroll atPrinceton University to attendWashington and Lee University.[6] At Washington and Lee, Wolfe was a member of thePhi Kappa Sigma fraternity. He majored in English, was sports editor of the college newspaper, and helped found a literary magazine,Shenandoah, giving him opportunities to practice his writing both inside and outside the classroom. Of particular influence was his professorMarshall Fishwick, a teacher of American studies educated atUVA andYale. More in the tradition of anthropology than literary scholarship, Fishwick taught his students to look at the whole of a culture, including those elements considered profane. Wolfe's undergraduate thesis, entitled "A Zoo Full of Zebras: Anti-Intellectualism in America," evinced his fondness for words and aspirations toward cultural criticism. Wolfe graduatedcum laude in 1951.
While still in college, Wolfe continued playing baseball as a pitcher and began to play semi-professionally. In 1952, he earned a tryout with theNew York Giants, but was cut after three days,[2] which he blamed on his inability to throw good fastballs. Wolfe abandoned baseball and instead followed his professor Fishwick's example, enrolling inYale University'sAmerican studies doctoral program. His Ph.D. thesis was titledThe League of American Writers: Communist Organizational Activity Among American Writers, 1929–1942.[7] In the course of his research, Wolfe interviewedMalcolm Cowley,Archibald MacLeish, andJames T. Farrell.[8] A biographer remarked on the thesis: "Reading it, one sees what has been the most baleful influence of graduate education on many who have suffered through it: It deadens all sense of style."[9] Originally rejected, his thesis was finally accepted after he rewrote it in an objective rather than a subjective style. Upon leaving Yale, he wrote a friend, explaining through expletives his personal opinions about his thesis.[10]
Though Wolfe was offered teaching jobs in academia, he opted to work as a reporter. In 1956, while still preparing his thesis, Wolfe became a reporter for theSpringfield Union inSpringfield, Massachusetts. Wolfe finished his thesis in 1957.
In 1959, he was hired byThe Washington Post. Wolfe has said that part of the reason he was hired by thePost was his lack of interest in politics. The Post's city editor was "amazed that Wolfe preferred cityside toCapitol Hill, the beat every reporter wanted." He won an award fromThe Newspaper Guild for foreign reporting inCuba in 1961 and also won the Guild's award for humor. While there, Wolfe experimented with fiction-writing techniques in feature stories.[11]
In 1962, Wolfe left Washington D.C. for New York City, taking a position with theNew York Herald Tribune as a general assignment reporter and feature writer. The editors of theHerald Tribune, includingClay Felker of the Sunday section supplementNew York magazine, encouraged their writers to break the conventions of newspaper writing.[12] Wolfe attracted attention in 1963 when, three months before theJFK assassination, he published an article onGeorge Ohsawa and thesanpaku condition foretelling death.[13]
During the1962–63 New York City newspaper strike, Wolfe approachedEsquire magazine about an article on thehot rod andcustom car culture ofsouthern California. He struggled with the article until his editor,Byron Dobell, suggested that Wolfe send him his notes so they could piece the story together. Wolfe procrastinated. The evening before the deadline, he typed a letter to Dobell explaining what he wanted to say on the subject, ignoring all journalistic conventions. Dobell's response was to remove the salutation "Dear Byron" from the top of the letter and publish it intact as reportage. The result, published in 1963, was "There Goes (Varoom! Varoom!) That Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby." The article was widely discussed—loved by some, hated by others. Its notoriety helped Wolfe gain publication of his first book,The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, a collection of his writings from theHerald-Tribune,Esquire, and other publications.[14]
This was what Wolfe calledNew Journalism, in which some journalists and essayists experimented with a variety ofliterary techniques, mixing them with the traditional ideal of dispassionate, even-handed reporting. Wolfe experimented with four literary devices not normally associated with feature writing: scene-by-scene construction, extensive dialogue, multiple points of view, and detailed description of individuals' status-life symbols (the material choices people make) in writing this stylized form of journalism. He later referred to this style as literary journalism.[15] Of the use of status symbols, Wolfe has said, "I think every living moment of a human being's life, unless the person is starving or in immediate danger of death in some other way, is controlled by a concern for status."[16]
Wolfe also championed what he called "saturation reporting," a reportorial approach in which the journalist "shadows" and observes the subject over an extended period of time. "To pull it off," says Wolfe, "you casually have to stay with the people you are writing about for long stretches ... long enough so that you are actually there when revealing scenes take place in their lives."[17] Saturation reporting differs from "in-depth" and "investigative" reporting, which involve the direct interviewing of numerous sources and/or the extensive analyzing of external documents relating to the story. Saturation reporting, according to communication professor Richard Kallan, "entails a more complex set of relationships wherein the journalist becomes an involved, more fully reactive witness, no longer distanced and detached from the people and events reported."[18]
Wolfe'sThe Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test is considered a striking example of New Journalism. This account of theMerry Pranksters, a famous sixties counter-culture group, was highly experimental in Wolfe's use ofonomatopoeia,free association, and eccentric punctuation—such as multiple exclamation marks and italics—to convey the manic ideas and personalities ofKen Kesey and his followers.
In addition to his own work, Wolfe edited a collection of New Journalism with E. W. Johnson, published in 1973 and titledThe New Journalism. This book published pieces byTruman Capote,Hunter S. Thompson,Norman Mailer,Gay Talese,Joan Didion, and several other well-known writers, with the common theme of journalism that incorporated literary techniques and which could be considered literature.[19]
In 1965, Wolfe published a collection of his articles in this style,The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, adding to his notability. He published a second collection of articles,The Pump House Gang, in 1968. Wolfe wrote on popular culture, architecture, politics, and other topics that underscored, among other things, how American life in the 1960s had been transformed by post-WWII economic prosperity. His defining work from this era isThe Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (published the same day asThe Pump House Gang in 1968), which for many epitomized the 1960s. Although a conservative in many ways (in 2008, he claimed never to have usedLSD and to have triedmarijuana only once[20]), Wolfe became one of the notable figures of the decade.
In 1970, he published two essays in book form asRadical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers. "Radical Chic" was a biting account of a party given by composer and conductorLeonard Bernstein to raise money for theBlack Panther Party. "Mau-Mauing The Flak Catchers" was about the practice by some African Americans of using racial intimidation ("mau-mauing") to extract funds from government welfare bureaucrats ("flak catchers"). Wolfe's phrase, "radical chic", soon became a popular derogatory term for critics to apply to upper-classleftism. HisMauve Gloves & Madmen, Clutter & Vine (1977) included Wolfe's noted essay, "The 'Me' Decade and the Third Great Awakening".
In 1979, Wolfe publishedThe Right Stuff, an account of the pilots who became America's firstastronauts. Following their training and unofficial, even foolhardy, exploits, he likened these heroes to "single combat warriors" of a bygone era, going forth to battle in theSpace Race on behalf of their country. In 1983, the book was adapted into anAcademy Award-winningfeature film.
Wolfe also wrote two critiques of and social histories ofmodern art andmodern architecture,The Painted Word andFrom Bauhaus to Our House, published in 1975 and 1981, respectively.The Painted Word mocked the excessive insularity of the art world and its dependence on what he saw as faddish critical theory. InFrom Bauhaus to Our House he explored what he said were the negative effects of theBauhaus style on the evolution of modern architecture.[21]
In 2016, Wolfe publishedThe Kingdom of Speech, a critique of the work ofCharles Darwin andNoam Chomsky. Wolfe synthesized what he construed as the views ofAlfred Russel Wallace and Chomsky on the language organ as not being a product of natural selection to suggest that speech is an invention that is responsible for establishing our humanity. Some critics claimed that Wolfe's view on how humans developed speech were not supported by research and were opinionated.[22][23]
In 1977,PBS producedTom Wolfe's Los Angeles, a fictional, satiricalTV movie set in Los Angeles. Wolfe appears in the movie as himself.[24]
Throughout his early career, Wolfe had planned to write a novel to capture the wide reach of American society. Among his models wasWilliam Makepeace Thackeray'sVanity Fair, which described the society of 19th-century England. In 1981, he ceased his other work to concentrate on the novel.
Wolfe began researching the novel by observing cases at the Manhattan Criminal Court and shadowing members of the homicide squad inThe Bronx. While the research came easily, he encountered difficulty in writing. To overcome his writer's block, Wolfe wrote toJann Wenner, editor ofRolling Stone, to propose an idea drawn fromCharles Dickens and Thackeray: to serialize his novel. Wenner offered Wolfe around $200,000 to serialize his work.[25] The frequent deadline pressure gave him the motivation he had sought, and from July 1984 to August 1985, he published a new installment in each biweekly issue ofRolling Stone.
Later Wolfe was unhappy with his "very public first draft"[26] and thoroughly revised his work, even changing his protagonist, Sherman McCoy. Wolfe had originally made him a writer, but recast him as a bond salesman. Wolfe researched and revised for two years, and hisThe Bonfire of the Vanities was published in 1987. The book was a commercial and critical success, spending weeks on bestseller lists and earning praise from the very literary establishment on which Wolfe had long heaped scorn.[27]
Because of the success of Wolfe's first novel, there was widespread interest in his second. This novel took him more than 11 years to complete;A Man in Full was published in 1998. The book's reception was not universally favorable, though it received glowing reviews inTime,Newsweek,The Wall Street Journal, and elsewhere. An initial printing of 1.2 million copies was announced and the book stayed at number one onThe New York Times' bestseller list for ten weeks. Noted authorJohn Updike wrote a critical review forThe New Yorker, complaining that the novel "amounts to entertainment, not literature, even literature in a modest aspirant form."[28] His comments sparked an intense war of words in the print and broadcast media among Wolfe and Updike, and authorsJohn Irving andNorman Mailer, who also entered the fray.[29] The novel was selected to be adapted into a television series byNetflix in 2021.[30]
In 2001, Wolfe published an essay referring to his three main literary critics as "My Three Stooges."[31] That year he also publishedHooking Up (a collection of short pieces, including the 1997 novellaAmbush at Fort Bragg).
He published his third novel,I Am Charlotte Simmons (2004), chronicling the decline of a poor, bright scholarship student from Alleghany County, North Carolina, after attending an elite university. He conveys an institution filled with snobbery, materialism, anti-intellectualism, and sexual promiscuity. The novel met with a mostly tepid response by critics. Many social conservatives praised it in the belief that its portrayal revealed widespread moral decline. The novel won aBad Sex in Fiction Award from the London-basedLiterary Review, a prize established "to draw attention to the crude, tasteless, often perfunctory use of redundant passages of sexual description in the modern novel".[32] Wolfe later explained that such sexual references were deliberately clinical.[citation needed]
Wolfe wrote that his goal in writing fiction was to document contemporary society in the tradition ofCharles Dickens,Émile Zola, andJohn Steinbeck.
Wolfe announced in early 2008 that he was leaving his longtime publisher,Farrar, Straus and Giroux. His fourth novel,Back to Blood, was published in October 2012 byLittle, Brown and Company. According toThe New York Times, Wolfe was paid close to US$7 million for the book.[33] According to the publisher,Back to Blood is about "class, family, wealth, race, crime, sex, corruption and ambition in Miami, the city where America's future has arrived first."[34] The book was released to mixed reviews.Back to Blood was an even bigger commercial failure thanI Am Charlotte Simmons.[35]
Kurt Vonnegut said Wolfe is "the most exciting—or, at least, the most jangling—journalist to appear in some time," and "a genius who will do anything to get attention."[36]Paul Fussell called Wolfe a splendid writer and stated "Reading him is exhilarating not because he makes us hopeful of the human future but because he makes us share the enthusiasm with which he perceives the actual."[37] CriticDwight Garner praised Wolfe as "a brilliantly gifted social observer and satirist" who "made a fetish of close and often comically slashing detail" and was "unafraid of kicking up at the pretensions of the literary establishment."[38]Harold Bloom described Wolfe as "a fierce storyteller, and a vastly adequate social satirist".[39] NovelistLouis Auchincloss praised Wolfe, describingThe Bonfire of the Vanities as "a marvelous book".[40]
CriticJames Wood disparaged Wolfe's "big subjects, big people, and yards of flapping exaggeration. No one of average size emerges from his shop; in fact, no real human variety can be found in his fiction, because everyone has the same enormous excitability."[41]
In 2000, Wolfe was criticised byNorman Mailer,John Updike andJohn Irving, after they were asked if they believed that his books were deserving of their critical acclaim. Mailer compared reading a Wolfe novel to having sex with a 300 lb woman, saying, "Once she gets to the top it's all over. Fall in love or be asphyxiated." Updike was more literary in his reservedness: He claimed thatA Man in Full "amounts to entertainment, not literature, even literature in a modest aspirant form." Irving was perhaps the most dismissive, saying "It's like reading a bad newspaper or a bad piece in a magazine ... read sentences and watch yourself gag." Wolfe responded, saying, "It's a tantrum. It's a wonderful tantrum.A Man in Full panicked Irving the same way it panicked Updike and Norman. Frightened them. Panicked them." He later called Updike and Mailer "two old piles of bones" and said again that Irving was frightened by the quality of his work. Later that year he published an essay titledMy Three Stooges about the critics.[42]
Wolfe's writing throughout his career showed an interest insocial status competition.[43]
Much of Wolfe's later work addressesneuroscience. He notes his fascination in "Sorry, Your Soul Just Died", one of the essays inHooking Up.[44] This topic is also featured inI Am Charlotte Simmons, as the title character is a student of neuroscience. Wolfe describes the characters' thought and emotional processes, such as fear, humiliation and lust, in the clinical terminology of brain chemistry. Wolfe also frequently gives detailed descriptions of various aspects of his characters' anatomies.[45]
Wolfe adopted wearing a white suit as a trademark in 1962. He bought his first white suit, planning to wear it in the summer, in the style ofSouthern gentlemen. He found that the suit he had bought was too heavy for summer use, so he wore it in winter, which created a sensation[clarification needed]. At the time, white suits were supposed to be reserved for summer wear.[46] Wolfe maintained this as a trademark. He sometimes accompanied it with a white tie, whitehomburg hat, and two-tonespectator shoes. Wolfe said that the outfit disarmed the people he observed, making him, in their eyes, "a man from Mars, the man who didn't know anything and was eager to know."[47]
In 1989, Wolfe wrote an essay forHarper's Magazine, titled "Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast". It criticized modern American novelists for failing to engage fully with their subjects, and suggested that modern literature could be saved by a greater reliance on journalistic technique.[48]
Asked to comment byThe Wall Street Journal on blogs in 2007 to mark the tenth anniversary of their advent, Wolfe wrote that "the universe of blogs is a universe of rumors" and that "blogs are an advance guard to the rear."[49] He also took the opportunity to criticize Wikipedia, saying that "only a primitive would believe a word of" it. He noted a story about him in his Wikipedia bio article at the time which he said had never happened.[49]
Wolfe's views and choice of subject material, such as mocking left-wing intellectuals inRadical Chic, glorifying astronauts inThe Right Stuff, and critiquingNoam Chomsky inThe Kingdom of Speech sometimes resulted in his being labeledconservative.[50] Wolfe has been labeled a conservative byThe New Yorker,[51]Vanity Fair,[52]The Washington Post,[53]National Review,[54] andUSA Today.[55] EditorByron Dobell labelled Wolfe areactionary;[52] while a member of theBlack Panther Party called him a racist, due to his portrayal of the party inRadical Chic.[56]
Wolfe rejected such labels, saying, "If I have been judged to beright wing, I think this is because of the things I have mocked."[50] Wolfe opposed the Americantwo-party system.[57] In an October 2012 interview withNew York magazine, he stated that he had "voted for every [presidential election] winner since I've been old enough to vote", with the exception ofBill Clinton in the1992 election. Later in the interview, Wolfe said: "Our federal government is like a train on the track... There are people on the right and people on the left, they're yelling at it. The train has no choice; it's on its track! Everyone gets forced to the center, which is fine with me... I read all these things about the country fading, but if you really think about it, we're still giants!"[58]
Wolfe supportedGeorge W. Bush as a political candidate and said he voted for him for president in2004 because of what he called Bush's "great decisiveness and willingness to fight".[50][59] Bush reciprocated the admiration, and is said to have read all of Wolfe's books, according to friends in 2005.[60] Wolfe supported theU.S. invasion of Afghanistan, but opposed theIraq War.[50]
In a 2004 interview withThe Guardian, Wolfe said that his "idol" in writing about society and culture isÉmile Zola. Wolfe described Zola as "a man of the left", one who "went out, and found a lot of ambitious, drunk, slothful and mean people out there. Zola simply could not—and was not interested in—telling a lie."[50] In the same interview, Wolfe said thatpolitical correctness "has probably had a good effect because it is now bad manners to use racial epithets."[50] However, in 2017, he attacked political correctness, mocking it as perpetual outrage.[57]
In 2016, Wolfe describedDonald Trump as a "lovable megalomaniac...The childishness makes him seem honest."[61] Wolfe later compared Trump to literary characterJay Gatsby.[57]
Wolfe was anatheist but said that "I hate people who go around saying they're atheists".[62] Of his religious upbringing, Wolfe observed that he "was raised as aPresbyterian".[63][64] He sometimes referred to himself as a "lapsed Presbyterian." Wolfe was a defender ofCatholic schools.[65] Wolfe was also critical of thesexual revolution, describing it as a "sexual carnival." He expressed sympathy towards Puritanical-Christian views on sexuality.[50]
Wolfe lived in New York City with his wife Sheila, who designed covers forHarper's Magazine. They had two children: a daughter, Alexandra; and a son, Thomas Kennerly III.[66]
Wolfe died from an infection inManhattan on May 14, 2018, at the age of 88.[2][67]
The historian Meredith Hindley credits Wolfe with introducing the terms "statusphere", "the right stuff", "radical chic", "the Me Decade" and "good ol' boy" into theEnglish lexicon.[68]
Wolfe was at times incorrectly credited with coining the term "trophy wife". His term for extremely thin women in his novelThe Bonfire of the Vanities was "social X-rays".[69]
According to journalism professorBen Yagoda, Wolfe is also responsible for the use of thepresent tense in magazine profile pieces; before he began doing so in the early 1960s, profile articles had always been written in thepast tense.[70]
Wolfe is the subject of the 2023 documentary filmRadical Wolfe. The film was based on a 2015 article byMichael Lewis and directed by Richard Dewey. TheLos Angeles Times described it as "a sprightly look at what made the reporter-trained Wolfe into the insider's outsider, how he made the leap to explicating—in supercharged, acrobatic sentences—our fast-changing, roving world of cliques, castes and subgroups".[71]
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