Tobacco smoking is the practice of burningtobacco and ingesting the resultingsmoke. The smoke may be inhaled, as is done withcigarettes, or released from the mouth, as is done withpipes andcigars. The practice is believed to have begun as early as 5000–3000 BC inMesoamerica andSouth America.[1] Tobacco was introduced toEurasia in the late 17th century byEuropean colonists, where it followed common trade routes. The practice encountered criticism from its first import into theWestern world onward but embedded itself in certain strata of several societies before becoming widespread upon the introduction of automated cigarette-rolling apparatus.[2][3]
Smoking is the most common method of consuming tobacco, and tobacco is the most common substance smoked. The agricultural product is often mixed with additives[4] and then combusted. The resulting smoke, which contains various active substances, the most significant of which is the addictivepsychostimulant drugnicotine (a compound naturally found in tobacco), is absorbed through thealveoli in the lungs or theoral mucosa.[5] Many substances in cigarette smoke, chiefly nicotine,trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings, which heighten heart rate, alertness[6] and reaction time, among other things.[7]Dopamine andendorphins are released, which are often associated with pleasure,[8] leading toaddiction.[9]
German scientists identified a link between smoking andlung cancer in the late 1920s, leading to the firstanti-smoking campaign in modern history, albeit one truncated by the collapse ofNazi Germany at the end ofWorld War II.[10] In 1950, British researchers demonstrated a clear relationship between smoking and cancer.[11] Evidence continued to mount in the 1960s, which prompted political action against the practice. Rates of consumption since 1965 in thedeveloped world have either peaked or declined.[12] However, they continue to climb in the developing world.[13] As of 2008 to 2010, tobacco is used by about 49% of men and 11% of women aged 15 or older in fourteen low-income and middle-income countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, and Vietnam), with about 80% of this usage in the form of smoking.[14] The gender gap tends to be less pronounced in lower age groups.[15][16] According to theWorld Health Organization, 8 million annual deaths are caused by tobacco smoking.[17]
Many smokers begin during adolescence or early adulthood.[18] A 2009 study of first smoking experiences of seventh-grade students found out that the most common factor leading students to smoke is cigarette advertisements. Smoking by parents, siblings, and friends also encourages students to smoke.[19] During the early stages, a combination of perceived pleasure acting aspositive reinforcement and desire to respond to social peer pressure may offset the unpleasant symptoms of initial use, which typically include nausea and coughing. After an individual has smoked for some years, the avoidance ofnicotine withdrawal symptoms andnegative reinforcement become the key motivations to continue.
Aztec women are handed flowers and smoking tubes before eating at a banquet,Florentine Codex, 16th century.
One archeological find raises the possibility of tobacco-smoking in the area of present-day Nevada about 12,000 years ago.[20]
Systematic tobacco use dates back to as early as 5000–3000 BC when the agricultural product began to be cultivated in Mesoamerica and South America; consumption later came to involve burning the plant substance, either by accident or with the intent of exploring other means of consumption.[1] The practice worked its way into shamanistic rituals.[21] Many ancient civilizations – such as theBabylonians, the Indians, and the Chinese – burned incense during religious rituals. Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies ofshamans but was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool.[22] The smoking of tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world.[23] Also, to stimulate respiration, tobacco-smoke enemas were used.[24]
Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it inceremonial pipes, either in sacred ceremonies or to seal bargains.[25] Adults as well as children enjoyed the practice.[26] It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator[citation needed] and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to theGreat Spirit.[27]
Apart from smoking, tobacco was used as medicine. As a pain killer, it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as apoultice.Desert Indians regarded smoking as a cure for colds, especially if the tobacco was mixed with the leaves of the smallDesert sage,Salvia dorrii, or the root ofIndian balsam orcough root,Leptotaenia multifida, the addition of which was thought to be particularly good forasthma andtuberculosis.[28]
Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in a Tavern byDirck Hals, 1627
In 1612, six years after the settlement ofJamestown, Virginia,John Rolfe was credited as the first settler to successfully raise tobacco as a cash crop. The demand quickly grew as tobacco, referred to as "brown gold", revived theVirginia joint stock company from its failed gold expeditions.[29] To meet demands from the Old World, tobacco was grown in succession, quickly depleting the soil. This became a motivator to settle west into the unknown continent, and likewise an expansion of tobacco production.[30]
FrenchmanJean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560, and tobacco then spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils".[2] Like tea, coffee, and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that were originally used as a form of medicine.[31] Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time, caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas aroundTimbuktu, and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.
Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders.James VI and I, King of Scotland and England, produced the treatiseA Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, and also introduced excise duty on the product.Murad IV, sultan of theOttoman Empire, 1623–40, was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public morals and health. TheChongzhen Emperor of China issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of theMing dynasty. Later, theManchu rulers of theQing dynasty would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". InEdo period Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by theshogunate as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.[32]
Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine, as shown on U.S. patent 238,640
Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634, thePatriarch of Moscow forbade the sale of tobacco, and sentenced men and women who flouted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs flayed. PopeUrban VIII likewise condemned smoking in holy places in a papal bull of 1624. Despite some concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were largely ignored. WhenJames I of England, a staunch smoking opponent and the author ofA Counterblaste to Tobacco, tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604 it was unsuccessful, as suggested by the presence of around 7,000 tobacco outlets in London by the early 17th century. From this point on, for some centuries, several administrations withdrew from efforts at discouragement and instead turned the tobacco trade and cultivation into sometimes lucrative government monopolies.[33][34]
By the mid-17th century, most major civilizations had been introduced to tobacco smoking and, in many cases, had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite some continued attempts on the part of rulers to eliminate the practice with penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then into the hinterlands. The English language termsmoking appears to have entered currency in the late 18th century, before which less abbreviated descriptions of the practice such asdrinking smoke were also in use.[2]
Growth in the US remained stable until the American Civil War in the 1860s when the primary agricultural workforce shifted fromslavery tosharecropping. This, along with a change in demand, accompanied the industrialization of cigarette production as craftsmanJames Bonsack created a machine in 1881 to partially automate their manufacture.[35]
In 1912 and 1932 in Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups,[36] first published advocacy against the consumption of tobacco in the journalDer Tabakgegner (The Tobacco Opponent). In 1929,Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a paper containing formalstatistical evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link. During theGreat Depression,Adolf Hitler condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money,[37] and later with stronger assertions. This movement was further strengthened with Nazi reproductive policy as women who smoked were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family.[38] In the 20th century, smoking was common. Social events like thesmoke night promoted the habit.
Theanti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany did not reach across enemy lines during the Second World War, as anti-smoking groups quickly lost popular support. By the end of the Second World War, American cigarette manufacturers quickly reentered the German black market. Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent,[39] and leaders of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign were silenced.[40] As part of theMarshall Plan, the United States shipped free tobacco to Germany; with 24,000 tons in 1948 and 69,000 tons in 1949.[39] Per capita yearly cigarette consumption inpost-war Germany steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1,523 in 1963.[10] By the end of the 20th century, anti-smoking campaigns in Germany were unable to exceed the effectiveness of the Nazi-era climax in the years 1939–41 and German tobacco health research was described byRobert N. Proctor as "muted".[10]
A lengthy study conducted in order to establish the strong association necessary for legislative action (US cigarette consumption per person blue, male lung cancer rate brown)
In 1954, theBritish Doctors Study, a prospective study of some 40 thousand doctors for about 2.5 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.[11] In January 1964, the United StatesSurgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer.[43]
As scientific evidence mounted in the 1980s, tobacco companies claimedcontributory negligence as the adverse health effects were previously unknown or lacked substantial credibility. Health authorities sided with these claims up until 1998, from which they reversed their position. TheTobacco Master Settlement Agreement, originally between the four largest US tobacco companies and the attorneys general of 46 states, restricted certain types of tobacco advertisement and required payments for health compensation, which later amounted to the largest civil settlement in United States history.[44]
Social campaigns have been instituted in many places to discourage smoking, such as Canada'sNational Non-Smoking Week.
From 1965 to 2006, rates of smoking in the United States declined from 42% to 20.8%.[12] The majority of those who quit were professional, affluent men. Although the per-capita number of smokers decreased, the average number of cigarettes consumed per person per day increased from 22 in 1954 to 30 in 1978. This paradoxical event suggests that those who quit smoking smoked less, while those who continued to smoke moved to smoke more light cigarettes.[45] The trend has been paralleled by many industrialized nations as rates have either leveled-off or declined. In thedeveloping world, however, tobacco consumption continued to rise at 3.4% in 2002.[13] In Africa, smoking is in most areas considered to be modern, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive much less attention.[46] In 2008,Russia (70.2%),Indonesia (65.3%),Belarus (63.6%),Ukraine (63.3%),Laos (62.5%),Greece (62.4%),Jordan (61.7%),Tonga (61.1%),China (60.8%), andNorth Korea (59.5%) were ranked the first by adjusted prevalence estimate of the percent of male population smoking tobacco.[47]
As of 2025,Bangladesh,India, andNepal are on track to achieve at least a 30% relative reduction in tobacco use, according to theWHO global report on trends in prevalence of tobacco use 2000–2024. The WHO South-East Asia Region has shown the fastest progress globally, already meeting the global reduction target by 2021 through strong policies, taxation, and cessation initiatives. Despite this success, over 322 million adults in the region continue to use tobacco, underscoring the need for continued regulation and public health action.[48]
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genusNicotiana. The genus contains several species, of whichNicotiana tabacum is the most commonly grown.Nicotiana rustica follows second, containing higher concentrations of nicotine. The leaves are harvested and cured to allow the slowoxidation and degradation ofcarotenoids in tobacco leaves. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, which can be attributed to sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavors. Before packaging, the tobacco is often combined with other additives to increase the addictive potency, shift the product'spH, or improve the effects of smoke by making it more palatable. In the United States, these additives are regulated to599 substances.[4] The product is then processed, packaged, and shipped to consumer markets.
Common methods of consuming tobacco include the following:
Basma leaves curing in the sun atPomak village ofXanthi, Thrace, Greece
Processed tobacco pressed into flakes for pipe smoking
Beedi
Beedis are thin South Asian cigarettes filled with tobacco flakes and wrapped in a tendu leaf tied with a string at one end. They produce higher levels of carbon monoxide, nicotine, and tar than cigarettes typical in the United States.[49][50]
Tendu Patta (Leaf) collection for Beedi industries
Cigars
Cigars are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco that are ignited so that smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth. They are generally not inhaled because of the high alkalinity of the smoke, which can quickly irritate the trachea and lungs. The prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed, and prevalence estimates vary somewhat depending on the survey method. The United States is the top consuming country by far, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom; the US and Western Europe account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide.[51] As of 2005 it is estimated that 4.3% of men and 0.3% of women smoke cigars in the US.[52]
Cigarettes
Cigarettes, French for "small cigar", are a product consumed through smoking and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, which are then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder.[4] Cigarettes are ignited and inhaled, usually through a cellulose acetate filter, into the mouth and lungs.
Hookah
Hookah are a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Originally from India, the hookah was a symbol of pride and honor for the landlords, kings, and other such high-class people. Now, the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits, tobacco, orcannabis.
Kretek
Kretek are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco,cloves and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs. The quality and variety of tobacco play an important role in kretek production, from which kretek can contain more than 30 types of tobacco. Minced dried clove buds, weighing about one-third of the tobacco blend, are added to add flavoring. In 2004, the United States prohibited cigarettes from having a "characterizing flavor" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol, thereby removing kretek from being classified as cigarettes.[53]
Pipe smoking
Pipe smoking is done with a tobacco pipe, typically consisting of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
Roll-your-own
Roll-your-own or hand-rolled cigarettes, often called "rollies", "cigi" or "Roll-ups", are very popular, particularly in Europe. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers, and filters, all bought separately. They are usually much cheaper than ready-made cigarettes, and small contraptions can be purchased, making the process easier.
Vaporizer
Avaporizer is a device used to sublimate the active ingredients of plant material. Rather than burning the herb, which produces potentially irritating, toxic, orcarcinogenic by-products, a vaporizer heats the material in a partial vacuum so that the active compounds contained in the plant boil off into a vapor. This method is often preferable when medically administering the smoke substance, as opposed to directly pyrolyzing the plant material.
A graph that shows the efficiency of smoking as a way to absorb nicotine compared to other forms of intake
The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream byabsorption through thealveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m2 (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion,pyrolysis.[5] Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of their highalkalinity, which is irritating to thetrachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through themucous membranes in the mouth.[54] Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke.[55] Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of commonsubstrates among these drugs.[56]
The absorbednicotine mimics nicotinic acetylcholine, which when bound tonicotinic acetylcholine receptors prevents the reuptake ofacetylcholine thereby increasing thatneurotransmitter in those areas of the body.[57] These nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are located in the central nervous system and at the nerve-muscle junction of skeletal muscles; whose activity increases heart rate, alertness,[6] and faster reaction times.[7] Nicotine acetylcholine stimulation is not directly addictive. However, since dopamine-releasing neurons are abundant on nicotine receptors, dopamine is released; and, in thenucleus accumbens, dopamine is associated with motivation causingreinforcing behavior.[58] Dopamine increase, in theprefrontal cortex, may also increaseworking memory.[59]
When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolyzed. However, a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. There is also a formation ofharmane (anMAO inhibitor) from the acetaldehyde in tobacco smoke. This may play a role in nicotine addiction by facilitating a dopamine release in thenucleus accumbens as a response to nicotine stimuli.[60] Using rat studies, withdrawal after repeated exposure to nicotine results in less responsive nucleus accumbens cells, which produce dopamine responsible forreinforcement.[61]
Percentage offemales smoking any tobacco product. Note that there is a difference between the scales used for males and the scales used for females.[47]
As of 2000, smoking was practiced by around 1.22 billion people. At current rates of 'smoker replacement' and market growth, this may reach around 1.9 billion in 2025.[62]
Smoking may be up to five times more prevalent among men than women in some communities,[62] although the gender gap usually declines with younger age.[15][16] In some developed countries smoking rates for men have peaked and begun to decline, while for women they continue to climb.[63]
As of 2002, about twenty percent of young teenagers (13–15) smoked worldwide. 80,000 to 100,000 children begin smoking every day, roughly half of whom live in Asia. Half of those who start smoking inadolescent years are projected to go on to smoke for 15 to 20 years.[13] As of 2019 in the United States, roughly 800,000 high school students smoke.[64]
TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) states that "Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor". Of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies. Smoking rates have leveled off or declined in thedeveloped world.[65] In thedeveloping world, however, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year as of 2002.[13]
The WHO in 2004 projected 58.8 million deaths to occur globally,[66] from which 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed,[67] and 4.9 million as of 2007.[68] As of 2002, 70% of the deaths are in developing countries.[68] As of 2017, smoking causes one in ten deaths worldwide, with half of those deaths in the US, China, India and Russia.[69]
Most smokers begin smoking during adolescence or early adulthood. Some studies also show that smoking can be linked to various mental health complications.[71] Smoking has elements of risk-taking and rebellion, which often appeal to young people.[citation needed] The presence of peers who smoke and media featuring high-status models smoking may also encourage smoking. Because teenagers are influenced more by their peers than by adults[dubious –discuss], attempts by parents, schools, and health professionals at preventing people from trying cigarettes are often unsuccessful.[72][73]
Children with smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. Children of parents who smoke are less likely to quit smoking.[18] One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked.[74] A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with a lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students.[75]
Behavioural research generally indicates that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure and cultural influence portrayed by friends. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes played a less significant part in adolescent smoking, withadolescents also reporting low levels of bothnormative and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes.[76] Mere exposure to tobacco retailers may motivate smoking behaviour in adults.[77] A similar study suggested that individuals may play a more active role in starting to smoke than has previously been thought and that social processes other than peer pressure also need to be taken into account.[78] Another study's results indicated thatpeer pressure was significantly associated with smoking behavior across all age and gender cohorts, but that intrapersonal factors were significantly more important to the smoking behavior of 12- to 13-year-old girls than same-age boys. Within the 14- to 15-year-old age group, one peer pressure variable emerged as a significantly more important predictor of girls' than boys' smoking.[79] It is debated whether peer pressure orself-selection is a greater cause of adolescent smoking.
PsychologistHans Eysenck (who was later questioned for implausible results[80] and unsafe publications[81][82]) developed a personality profile for the typical smoker.Extraversion is the trait that is most associated with smoking, and smokers tend to be sociable, impulsive, risk-taking, and excitement-seeking individuals.[83]
The reasons given by some smokers for this activity have been categorized asaddictive smoking,pleasure from smoking,tension reduction/relaxation,social smoking,stimulation,habit/automatism, andhandling. There are gender differences in how much each of these reasons contributes, with females more likely than males to citetension reduction/relaxation,stimulation andsocial smoking.[84]
Some smokers argue that thedepressant effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. However, according to theImperial College London, "Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and the effect it has at any time is likely determined by the mood of the user, the environment, and the circumstances of use. Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, while higher doses have a stimulant effect."[85]
Several studies have established that cigarette sales and smoking follow distinct time-related patterns. For example, cigarette sales in the United States of America have been shown to follow a strongly seasonal pattern, with the high months being the summer months and the low months being the winter months.[86]
Similarly, smoking has been shown to follow distinct circadian patterns during the waking day, with the high point usually occurring shortly after waking in the morning and shortly before going to sleep at night.[87]
Common adverse effects of tobacco smoking. The more common effects are in boldface.[88]Cancer prevention poster from New Zealand
Tobacco smoking is theleading cause of preventable death and a globalpublic health concern.[89] There are 1.3 billion tobacco users in the world, as per latest data from WHO.[17] One person dies every six seconds from a tobacco related disease.[90]
TheWorld Health Organization estimates that tobacco caused 8 million deaths in 2004[17] and 100 million deaths over the 20th century.[118] Similarly, the United StatesCenters for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide."[119] Although 70% of smokers state their intention to quit, only 3–5% are successful.[120]
The probabilities of death from lung cancer before age 75 in the United Kingdom are 0.2% for men who never smoked (0.4% for women), 5.5% for male former smokers (2.6% in women), 15.9% for current male smokers (9.5% for women) and 24.4% for male "heavy smokers" defined as smoking more than 25 cigarettes per day (18.5% for women).[121] Tobacco smoke can combine with other carcinogens present within the environment to produce elevated degrees of lung cancer.
The risk of lung cancer decreases almost from the first day someonequits smoking, and it drops by 50% after 10 years of smoking cessation.[17] Healthy cells that have escaped mutations grow and replace the damaged ones in the lungs. In the research dated December 2019, 40% of cells in former smokers resembled those of individuals who had never smoked.[122]
Rates of smoking have generally leveled off or declined in the developed world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, from 42% to 20.8% in adults.[123] In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[124]
Smoking alters thetranscriptome of the lungparenchyma; the expression levels of a panel of seven genes (KMO, CD1A, SPINK5, TREM2, CYBB, DNASE2B, FGG) are increased in the lung tissue of smokers.[125]
Passive smoking is the inhalation of tobacco smoke by individuals who are not actively smoking. This smoke is known as second-hand smoke (SHS) or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) when the burning end is present, andthird-hand smoke after the burning end has been extinguished. Because of its negative implications, exposure to SHS has played a central role in the regulation of tobacco products. Six hundred thousand deaths were attributed to SHS in 2004. It has also been known to produce skin conditions such as freckles and dryness.[126]
In countries where there is auniversally funded healthcare system, the government covers the cost of medical care for smokers who become ill through smoking in the form of increased taxes. Two broad debating positions exist on this front, the "pro-smoking" argument suggests that heavy smokers generally do not live long enough to develop the costly and chronic illnesses that affect the elderly, reducing society's healthcare burden, and the "anti-smoking" argument suggests that the healthcare burden is increased because smokers get chronic illnesses younger and at a higher rate than the general population. Data on both positions has been contested. TheCenters for Disease Control and Prevention published research in 2002 claiming that the cost of eachpack of cigarettes sold in the United States was more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity.[131] The cost may be higher, with another study putting it as high as $41 per pack, most of which however is on the individual and his/her family.[132] This is how one author of that study puts it when he explains the very low cost for others: "The reason the number is low is that for private pensions, Social Security, and Medicare — the biggest factors in calculating costs to society — smoking actually saves money. Smokers die at a younger age and don't draw on the funds they've paid into those systems."[132] Other research demonstrates that premature death caused by smoking may redistribute Social Security income in unexpected ways that affect behavior and reduce the economic well-being of smokers and their dependents.[133] To further support this, whatever the rate of smoking consumption is per day, smokers have a greater lifetime medical cost on average compared to a non-smoker by an estimated $6000.[120] Between the cost for lost productivity and health care expenditures combined, cigarette smoking costs at least 193 billion dollars (Research also shows that smokers earn less money than nonsmokers[134]). As for secondhand smoke, the cost is over 10 billion dollars.[135]
By contrast, some non-scientific studies, including one conducted byPhilip Morris in theCzech Republic calledPublic Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic[136] and another by theCato Institute,[137] support the opposite position. Philip Morris has explicitly apologized for the former study, saying: "The funding and public release of this study, which, among other things, detailed purported cost savings to the Czech Republic due to premature deaths of smokers, exhibited terrible judgment as well as a complete and unacceptable disregard of basic human values. For one of our tobacco companies to commission this study was not just a terrible mistake; it was wrong. All of us at Philip Morris, no matter where we work, are extremely sorry for this. No one benefits from the very real, serious, and significant diseases caused by smoking."[136]
Between 1970 and 1995, per-capita cigarette consumption in poorer developing countries increased by 67 percent, while it dropped by 10 percent in the richer developed world. Eighty percent of smokers now live in less developed countries. By 2030, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) forecasts that 10 million people a year will die of smoking-related illness, making it the single biggest cause of death worldwide, with the largest increase being among women. WHO forecasts the 21st century's death rate from smoking to be ten times the 20th century's rate ("Washingtonian" magazine, December 2007).
The tobacco industry is one of the largest global enterprises. The six largest tobacco companies earned a combined profit of $35.1 billion (Jha et al., 2014) in 2010.[138]
The problem of smoking at home is challenging for women in many cultures (especially Arab cultures), where it may not be acceptable for a woman to ask her husband not to smoke at home or in the presence of her children. Studies have shown that pollution levels for smoking areas indoors are higher than levels found on busy roadways, in closed motor garages, and during firestorms.[clarification needed] Furthermore, smoke can spread from one room to another, even if doors to the smoking area are closed.[139]
The ceremonial smoking of tobacco and praying with asacred pipe is a prominent part of the religious ceremonies of severalNative American Nations.Sema, theAnishinaabe word for tobacco, is grown for ceremonial use and is considered the ultimate sacred plant since its smoke is believed to carry prayers to the spirits. In most major religions, however, tobacco smoking is not specifically prohibited, although it may be discouraged as an immoral habit. Before the health risks of smoking were identified through controlled studies, smoking was considered an immoral habit by certain Christian preachers and social reformers. The founder of theLatter Day Saint movement,Joseph Smith, recorded that on 27 February 1833, he received arevelation which discouraged tobacco use. This "Word of Wisdom" was later accepted as a commandment, and faithful Latter-day Saints abstain completely from tobacco.[140] Jehovah's Witnesses base their stand against smoking on the Bible's command to "clean ourselves of every defilement of flesh" (2 Corinthians 7:1). The Jewish RabbiYisrael Meir Kagan (1838–1933) was one of the first Jewish authorities to speak out on smoking. InAhmadiyya Islam, smoking is highly discouraged, although not forbidden. During the month offasting however, it is forbidden to smoke tobacco.[141] In theBaháʼí Faith, smoking tobacco is discouraged though not forbidden.[142]
On 27 February 2005, theWHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control took effect. The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently, the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 168 signatories.[143] Among other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will eliminate secondhand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.
Many governments have introducedexcise taxes on cigarettes to reduce the consumption of cigarettes, alongside generating tax revenue. TheWorld Health Organization finds that:[144]
The structure of tobacco excise taxes varies considerably across countries, with lower income countries more likely to rely more onad valorem excises and higher income countries more likely to rely more on specific excise taxes, while many countries at all income levels use a mix of specific andad valorem excises.
Tobacco excise tax systems are quite complex in several countries, where different tax rates are applied based on prices, and product characteristics such as the presence/absence of a filter or length, packaging, weight, tobacco content, and/or production or sales volume. These complex systems are difficult to administer, create opportunities for tax avoidance, and are less effective from a public health perspective.
Globally, cigarette excise taxes account for less than 45 percent of cigarette prices, on average, while all taxes applied to cigarettes account for just over half of the price. Higher-income countries levy higher taxes on tobacco products, and these taxes account for a greater share of the price, with both the absolute tax and share of price accounted for by tax falling as country incomes fall.
In 2002, theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention said that eachpack of cigarettes[quantify] sold in the United States costs the nation more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity,[131] around $3400 per year per smoker. Another study by a team of health economists finds that the combined price paid by their families and society is about $41 per pack of cigarettes.[145]
Substantial scientific evidence confirms that higher cigarette prices result in lower overall cigarette consumption. Most studies indicate that a 10% price increase reduces cigarette consumption by 3% to 5%. Youth, minorities, and low-income smokers are two to three times more likely to quit or smoke less than other smokers in response to price increases.[146][147] While smoking is sometimes given as an example of aninelastic good[citation needed], it is elastic in poorer and middle-wealth nations, and even in wealthier nations price increases do affect consumption, if not at the same rate as more elastic goods.[148] That is to say, a large rise in price will only result in a small decrease in consumption.
Many nations have implemented some form of tobacco taxation. As of 1997, Denmark had the highest cigarette tax burden of $4.02 per pack. Taiwan only had a tax burden of $0.62 per pack. The federal government of the United States charges $1.01 per pack.[149]
Cigarette taxes vary widely from state to state in the United States. For example,Missouri has a cigarette tax of only 17 cents per pack, the nation's lowest, whileNew York has the highest cigarette tax in the U.S.: $4.35 per pack. In Alabama, Illinois, Missouri, New York City, Tennessee, and Virginia, counties and cities may impose an additional limited tax on the price of cigarettes.[150] Sales taxes are also levied on tobacco products in most jurisdictions.
In the United Kingdom, as of April 2023,[update] a packet of 20 cigarettes has a tax added of 16.5% of the retail price plus £5.89.[151] The UK has a significantblack market for tobacco, and it has been estimated by the tobacco industry that 27% of cigarette and 68% of handrolling tobacco consumption is non-UK duty paid (NUKDP).[152]
In Australia, total taxes account for 62.5% of the final price of a packet of cigarettes (2011 figures). These taxes include federal excise or customs duty andGoods and Services Tax.[153]
An enclosed smoking area in a Japanese train station. Notice the air vent on the roof.
In June 1967, the USFederal Communications Commission ruled that programs broadcast on a television station that discussed smoking and health were insufficient to offset the effects of paid advertisements that were broadcast for five to ten minutes each day. In April 1970, the US Congress passed thePublic Health Cigarette Smoking Act banning the advertising of cigarettes ontelevision andradio starting on 2 January 1971.[154]
The Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992 expressly prohibited almost all forms of Tobacco advertising in Australia, including the sponsorship of sporting or other cultural events by cigarette brands.
All tobacco advertising and sponsorship on television has been banned within the European Union since 1991 under the Television Without Frontiers Directive (1989).[155] This ban was extended by the Tobacco Advertising Directive, which took effect in July 2005 to cover other forms of media such as the internet, print media, and radio. The directive does not include advertising in cinemas and on billboards or using merchandising – or tobacco sponsorship of cultural and sporting events that are purely local, with participants coming from only one Member State[156] as these fall outside the jurisdiction of theEuropean Commission. However, most member states have transposed the directive with national laws that are wider in scope than the directive and cover local advertising. A 2008 European Commission report concluded that the directive had been successfully transposed into national law in all EU member states and that these laws were well implemented.[157]
A cigarette dispenser inCanoa Quebrada, Brazil selling individual cigarettes forR$1 in 2024
Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. For example, in the countries of the European Union, Turkey, Australia[158] and South Africa, cigarette packs must be prominently labeled with the health risks associated with smoking.[159] Canada, Australia, Thailand, Iceland and Brazil have also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects, and they include graphic images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking. Also, in the United Kingdom, there have been many graphicNHS advertisements, one showing a cigarette filled with fatty deposits as if the cigarette is symbolizing the artery of a smoker.
Some countries have also banned advertisements at the point of sale. The United Kingdom and Ireland have limited the advertisement of tobacco at retailers.[160][161] This includes storing of cigarettes behind a covered shelf not visible to the public. They do, however, allow some limited advertising at retailers. Norway has a complete ban on point-of-sale advertising.[162] This includes smoking products and accessories. Implementing these policies can be challenging; all of these countries experienced resistance and challenges from the tobacco industry.[163][164][165] The World Health Organization recommends the complete ban of all types of advertisement or product placement, including at vending machines, at airports and on internet shops selling tobacco.[166] The evidence is as yet unclear as to the effect of such bans.
Many countries have asmoking age. In many countries, including the United States, most European Union member states, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, Israel, India,[18] Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Australia, it is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors and in the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Denmark and South Africa it is illegal to sell tobacco products to people under the age of 18. On 1 September 2007 the minimum age to buy tobacco products in Germany rose from 16 to 18, as well as in the United Kingdom where on 1 October 2007 it rose from 16 to 18.[167] Underlying such laws is the belief that people should make an informed decision regarding the risks of tobacco use. These laws have lax enforcement in some nations and states. In China, Turkey, and many other countries, a child has little problem buying tobacco products because they are often told to go to the store to buy tobacco for their parents.
Several countries such as Ireland, Latvia, Estonia, the Netherlands, Finland, Norway, Canada, Australia, Sweden, Portugal, Singapore, Italy, Indonesia, India, Lithuania, Chile, Spain, Iceland, United Kingdom, Slovenia, Türkiye and Malta have legislated against smoking in public places, often including bars and restaurants. Restaurateurs have been permitted in some jurisdictions to build designated smoking areas (or to prohibit smoking). In the United States, many states prohibit smoking in restaurants, and some also prohibit smoking in bars. In provinces of Canada, smoking is illegal in indoor workplaces and public places, including bars and restaurants. As of 31 March 2008, Canada has introduced a smoke-free law in all public places, as well as within 10 meters of an entrance to any public place. In Australia, smoke-free laws vary from state to state. In New Zealand and Brazil, smoking is restricted in enclosed public places, including bars, restaurants, and pubs. Hong Kong restricted smoking on 1 January 2007 in the workplace, public spaces such as restaurants, karaoke rooms, buildings, and public parks (bars that do not admit minors were exempt until 2009). In Romania, smoking is illegal in trains, metro stations, public institutions (except where designated, usually outside), and public transport. In Germany, in addition to smoking bans in public buildings and transport, an anti-smoking ordinance for bars and restaurants was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates that the smoking ban had, if any, only short-run effects on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run, no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either that consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run or that negative revenue effects from smokers are compensated by increasing revenues from non-smokers.[168]
An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption ofalcohol. Enhanced combustion using nitrates was traditionally used, but cigarette manufacturers have been silent on this subject, claiming at first that a safe cigarette was technically impossible, then that it could only be achieved by modifying the paper. Roll-your-own cigarettes contain no additives and are fire-safe. Numerousfire safe cigarette designs have been proposed, some by tobacco companies themselves, which would extinguish a cigarette left unattended for more than a minute or two, thereby reducing the risk of fire. Among American tobacco companies, some have resisted this idea, while others have embraced it.RJ Reynolds was a leader in making prototypes of these cigarettes in 1983[169] and will make all of their U.S. market cigarettes fire-safe by 2010.[170]Phillip Morris is not in active support of it.[171]Lorillard (purchased byRJ Reynolds), the US' 3rd-largest tobacco company, seems to be ambivalent.[171]
Individual cigarettes in Canada now carry warnings such as "poison in every puff" and "cigarettes cause impotence" in what the government says is an effort to make it "virtually impossible to avoid health warnings altogether".[172]
The relationship between tobacco and other drug use has been well-established, however, the nature of this association remains unclear. The two main theories are thephenotypic causation (gateway) model and the correlated liabilities model. The causation model argues that smoking is a primary influence on future drug use,[173] while the correlated liabilities model argues that smoking and other drug use are predicated on genetic or environmental factors.[174] One study published by the NIH found that tobacco use may be linked to cocaine addiction and marijuana use. The study stated that 90% of adults who used cocaine had smoked cigarettes before (this was for people ages 18–34). This study could support the gateway drug theory.[175]
In the United States, about 70% of smokers would like to quit smoking, and 50% report having attempted to do so in the past year.[179] Without support, 1% of smokers will successfully quit smoking each year. Physician advice to quit smoking increases the rate to 3% per year.[180] Adding first‐line smoking cessation medications (and some behavioral help), increased quit rates to around 20% of smokers in a year.[181] For cessation of smoking, public participation in health campaigns are important.
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