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| Date | 14th century -16th century |
|---|---|
| Location | Timurid Empire (Central Asia and Persia) |
| Participants | Timurid dynasty |
TheTimurid Renaissance was a period inAsian andIslamic history, following theIslamic Golden Age, and spanning from the late 14th to the early 16th centuries, which saw the revival of thearts andsciences under theTimurid Empire. Its movement spread across theMuslim world.[3] The French wordrenaissance meaning "rebirth", is used to refer to a period of cultural revival. The use of this term to describe the Timurid period has not been without reservation, with some scholars seeing it as aswan song of Timurid culture.[3][4]
The Timurid Renaissance took place slightly earlier than theRenaissance ofEurope.[5][6] The glories of which have been described by some as equalling theItalian Quattrocento.[4] The Timurid Renaissance reached its peak in the 15th century, after the end of theMongol invasions and conquests.
Based on Islamic ideals,[7] the Timurid Renaissance includes the rebuilding ofSamarkand, the invention ofTamerlane Chess byTimur, the reign ofShah Rukh and his consortGawhar Shad inHerat, which rivaledFlorence of theItalian Renaissance,[8][9] the period of the astronomer and mathematicianUlugh Begh along with otherpolymaths andIslamic scholars, and the establishment of learning centers bySultan Husayn Bayqara.[10] The reign of Timur led to a revival in classicalPersian art. Large-scale building projects were undertaken, creatingmausoleums,madrasas, andkitabhane - medieval Islamic book workshops. Mathematical and astronomical studies were reinvigorated, and by the beginning of the 16th century, mastery overfirearms was achieved.
Major commissions during Timur's lifetime were the Summer Palace inShahrisabz,Bibi-Khanym Mosque, and the construction of theRegistan.[11] As a resultSamarkand, which had previously been a center of scholarship and study, and had been destroyed during theMongol conquest of Khwarezmia, became the center of the Timurid Renaissance andIslamic civilization in general. The city of Herat also became an important center of intellectual and artistic life in the Muslim world during this time.[11][12]
The Timurid Renaissance differed from previousBuyid dynastycultural and artistic developments in that it was not a direct revival of classical models, but rather a broadening of their cultural appeal by including morecolloquial styles of thePersian language. In terms of architecture, the Timurid Renaissance was inherited byMughal India, and significantly influenced otherIslamic Gunpowder Empires likeOttoman Turkey andSafavid Iran.[13][14][15][16]
The Timurid Empire was founded byAmir Tamerlane in 1370 after the conquest of severalIlkhanate successor states. After conquering a city, the Timurids commonly spared the lives of the local artisans and deported them to the Timurid capital ofSamarkand.
After the Timurids conqueredPersia in the early 15th century, many Islamic artistic traits became interwoven with existingMongol art. Timur's establishment of the IslamicSharialaw later in life made Samarkand one of the centers ofIslamic art.[17]
In the mid 15th century the empire moved its capital toHerat, which became a focal point for Timurid art. As with Samarkand, artisans and intellectuals of various ethnic backgrounds soon established Herat as a center for arts and culture. Soon, many of the Timurid cultural expressions became mixed with those of other traditions.[18]
Timurid art absorbed and improved upon the traditional Persian concept of the "Arts of the Book". The new, Timurid-inflected works of art saw illustratedpaper (as opposed toparchment) manuscripts produced by the empire's artists. These illustrations were notable for their rich colors and elaborate designs.[19] Due to the quality of the miniature paintings found in these manuscripts, archaeologist and art historianSuzan Yalman of theMetropolitan Museum of Art[20] noted that "the Herat school [of manuscript painting] is often regarded as the apogee of Persian painting.[21]
Timurid silver-inlaid steel is often cited as being of particularly high quality. Painting was not limited to manuscripts. Many Timurid artists also created intricatewall paintings. Many of these wall paintings depicted landscapes derived from both Persian and Chinese artistic tradition.[22] While the subject matter of these paintings was borrowed from other cultures, Timurid wall paintings were eventually refined into their own, unique style.[23]
Mongol artistic traditions were not entirely phased out, as the highly stylized depictions of human figures seen in 15th century Timurid art are derived from this culture.[24]
Sultan Husayn Bayqara's reign saw a further rise in the arts. He was renowned as a benefactor and patron of learning in his kingdom.[25] Sultan Husayn built numerous structures including a famous school. He has been described as "the quintessential Timurid ruler of the later period inTransoxiana." His sophisticated court and generous artistic patronage was a source of admiration, particularly from his cousin,Babur ofMughal India.
Timurid architecture drew on aspects ofSeljuk architecture. Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated the facades of buildings. Sometimes building interiors were decorated similarly, with painting andstuccorelief further enriching the effect.[26]
Timurid architecture was the pinnacle ofIslamic art inCentral Asia. There were spectacular and stately edifices erected by Tamerlane and his successors inSamarkand andHerat. These monumental works helped to disseminate the influence of theIlkhanid school of art as far asIndia, where it gave rise to the celebratedMughal (orMongol)school of architecture.
Timurid architecture started with thesanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-dayKazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleumGur-e Amir inSamarkand. Timur'sGur-I Amir, the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with "turquoise Persian tiles".[27] Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a "Persian style madrassa" (religious school)[27] and a "Persian style mosque"[27] by Timurid SultanUlugh Beg is observed. The mausoleums of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes, remain among the most refined and exquisitePersian architecture.[28]
Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably theShāh-e Zenda inSamarkand, theMusallah complex in Herat, and the mosque ofGawhar Shad inMashhad. Doubledomes of various shapes abound, perfused on the outside with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon theIndian subcontinent.[29]
The Timurid Empire also produced quality pieces of metalwork.Steel,iron,brass, andbronze were commonly used as mediums.[21] Timurid silver-inlaid steel is often being cited as being of particularly high quality.[30] Following the collapse of the Timurid Empire, several Iranian and Mesopotamian cultures co-opted Timurid metalwork.[21]
Chinese-styleceramics were produced by Timurid artisans.Jade carving also had some presence in Timurid art.[22]
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Jamshid al-Kashi was one of the most influential contributors in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. He got immense support from both EmperorShah Rukh and QueenGoharshad, who were very interested in the sciences and encouraged theirs court to study the various fields in great depth. Consequently, the period of their power became one of many scholarly achievements.
The reign of SultanUlugh Begh saw the scientific peak of the empire. During his rule, al-Kashi producedsine tables to foursexagesimal digits (equivalent to eightdecimal places) of accuracy for each degree and includes differences for each minute. He also produced tables dealing with transformations betweencoordinate systems on thecelestial sphere, such as the transformation from theecliptic coordinate system to theequatorial coordinate system.[31]TheSullam al-Sama was authored, which provided the resolution of difficulties met by predecessors in the determination of distances and sizes ofheavenly bodies such as theEarth, theMoon, theSun and theStars. TheTreatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments was also written which described a variety of different instruments, including thetriquetrum andarmillary sphere, theequinoctial armillary andsolsticial armillary ofMo'ayyeduddin Urdi, thesine andversine instrument of Urdi, thesextant ofal-Khujandi, the Fakhri sextant at theSamarqand observatory, a double quadrantAzimuth-altitude instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating analhidade which he invented.[32]
The invention of the Plate of Conjunctions was seen, ananalog computing instrument used to determine the time of day at whichplanetary conjunctions will occur,[33] and for performinglinear interpolation.[34] Invented was also a mechanical planetarycomputer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions inlongitude of theSun andMoon,[34] and theplanets in terms ofelliptical orbits;[35] thelatitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and theecliptic of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated analhidade andruler.[36]
Ulugh Begh founded an institute in Samarkand which soon became a prominent university. Students from all over Central Asia, and beyond, flocked to this academy in the capital city of his sultanate. Consequently, Ulugh Beg gathered many great mathematicians and scientists, includingAli Qushji.Ali made significant development ofastronomical physics independent fromnatural philosophy, and for providingempirical evidence for theEarth's rotation in his treatise,Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy. In addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous workZij-i-Sultani and to the founding ofSahn-ı Seman Medrese, one of the first centers for the study of various traditional Islamic sciences in the Ottoman caliphate, Ali Kuşçu was also the author of several scientific works and textbooks on astronomy.[37] Qushji's most important astronomical work isConcerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy. Under the influence ofIslamic theologians who opposed the interference ofAristotelianism in astronomy, Qushji rejectedAristotelian physics and completely separatednatural philosophy fromIslamic astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purelyempirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead (thoughEmilie Savage-Smith asserts that no Islamic astronomers proposed a heliocentric universe[38]). He also foundempirical evidence for theEarth's rotation through his observation oncomets and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory.[39][40][41]
Following the decline of theTimurid Empire in the late 15th century, theGunpowder empires, which were theOttomans,Safavid dynasty,Mughal India and other empires, co-opted Timurid artistic traditions into their own.[42][20]
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