ThePhilippine–American War, also known as thePhilippine War of Independence or thePhilippine Insurrection (1899–1902),[1] was an armed conflict between Filipino revolutionaries and thegovernment of the United States which arose from the struggle of theFirst Philippine Republic to gain independence following the Philippines being acquired by the United States fromSpain.[2][3] This article lists significant events from before, during, and after that war, with links to other articles containing more detail.
Prior to theSpanish–American War, thePhilippine Revolution against Spain had been suspended by thePact of Biak-na-Bato. Following on that pact,Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been leader of theKatipunan, went into exile in Hong Kong along with other revolutionary leaders. Some revolutionaries remained in the Philippines and continued the revolution. When the Spanish–American War broke out, American forces sailed for the Philippines and decisively defeated the Spanish Navy. Aguinaldo then returned to the Philippines, and resumed a leadership role in the revolution. As the Spanish–American War continues, Aguinaldo proclaims Philippine independence and establishes an insurgent government.
19 May –Emilio Aguinaldo returns to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong aboard an American naval vessel[4]
24 May – Aguinaldo issues a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as dictator.[5]
18 June – Aguinaldo, believing the Americans had no intent to occupy the Philippine Islands, issued a decree formally establishing the Dictatorial Government of the Philippines.[6]
23 June – Aguinaldo issues a decree replacing the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary Government, with himself as president.[7][8]
25 June – The third of three U.S. expeditions arrives in Manila, bringing U.S. land forces in the country to a total of 10,946 men.[9]
8 August – Eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire. American officers suspected at the time that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American movements. This was later confirmed by captured insurgent documents.[10]
12 August – The Protocol of Peace is signed in Washington, D.C. between the U.S. and Spain. U.S. PresidentWilliam McKinley directs that "all operations against the enemy be suspended." Word of this will not reach Manila until 16 August.[11]
13 August – Inthe 1898 Battle of Manila, U.S. forces take possession of the country's capital.[12] At the conclusion of the battle, U.S. forces control the city and Filipino forces remain in the suburbs.[13]
25 August – One American soldier was killed, another mortally wounded and four more slightly wounded in a clash atCavite between American soldiers and Filipino revolutionaries. Aguinaldo expressed his regret and promised to punish the offenders.[15]
26 September – American and Spanish delegations begin negotiations in Paris on a treaty to end the Spanish–American War.[16]
10 December – TheTreaty of Paris is signed in Paris.[17] In Article III of the treaty, Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands.[2]
21 January – Emilio Aguinaldo sanctions the Malolos Constitution.[18]
22 January – Malolos Constitution is promulgated.[18]
6 February – The U.S. Senate approved the Treaty of Paris by a vote of 52 to 27. President McKinley signed it on that day.[19]
19 March – Spain ratified the Treaty of Paris when theQueen RegentMaría Cristina signed the agreement to break the impasse of the deadlocked Cortes.[19]
Depending on events chosen to mark the beginning and the end of the war, a number of different start and ending dates can be given. For purposes of this article, the war is considered to have begun on 4 February 1899, and to have ended on 4 July 1902.
Armed conflict erupted in Manila between U.S. and Filipino forces on 4 February 1899. On that date, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a proclamation ordering, in part, "[t]hat peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war."[20] On 2 June 1899, theMalolos Congress enacted and ratified aDeclaration of War on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day byPedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.[21]
The ending of the war was not formalized in a treaty by which it can be dated. Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by U.S. forces on 23 March 1901, and swore allegiance to the U.S. on 1 April, appealing to all Filipinos to accept the "sovereignty of the United States ...". Armed conflict continued, however, until the surrender of the last Filipino general on 13 April 1902.[22] On 4 July 1902, U.S. PresidentTheodore Roosevelt proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict, and that July 4 date is often mentioned as the ending date of the war.[23] On 9 April 2002, Philippine PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on 16 April 1902 with the surrender of GeneralMiguel Malvar.[24]
However, despite these proclamations from the Americans andilustrado elite, the war continued across the archipelago for over a decade. Bands of guerrillas, millenarian movements and other resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and thePhilippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913.[25][26] Some other sources describe post-1902 actions inMindanao as a separate conflict.[27]
11 April –Battle of Pagsanjan: American sharpshooters skirmish with Filipinos outside of Pagsanjan, succeeding in driving them out. General Lawton's troops take Pagsanjan in the second action of the Laguna Campaign.[31]
12 April –Battle of Paete: General Lawton's forces disperse Filipinos blocking route to Paete in a stiff fight. Paete taken by the Americans. The last action of the Laguna Campaign.[32]
23 April –Battle of Quingua: Filipino GeneralGregorio del Pilar stops American cavalry scouts on Luzon, but is then routed after an artillery bombardment and infantry ground assault.[33]
2 June – The Malolos Congress of the First Philippine Republic enacted and ratified aDeclaration of War on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day byPedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.[34]
5 June – Filipino GeneralAntonio Luna assassinated by Aguinaldo's men.[35]
13 June –Battle of Zapote Bridge: Lawton's American forces rout a larger Philippine force under General Maximo Hizon and inflict heavy casualties on the enemy in 2nd largest battle of the Philippine–American War.[36]
11 August - The U.S. ratified the Treaty of Paris, completing the exchange of ratifications with Spain.
13 November – Emilio Aguinaldo decrees thatguerrilla warfare would henceforth be the strategy.[38]
2 December –Battle of Tirad Pass: Sixty Filipino soldiers under General Gregorio del Pilar fight off an attack of 500 American soldiers for 5 hours, before nearly all Filipinos are killed, including del Pilar.[39]
19 December –Battle of San Mateo (1899): For unknown reasons, General Lawton assumed personal command of the expedition, and was struck in the chest and killed when the unit he was with came under fire. The town of Montalban was occupied in the action before Lawton's death, and the town of San Mateo was occupied afterwards. Lawton was the only U.S. fatality in the action.[40]
15 April – In theSiege of Catubig, Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack against a detachment of American soldiers, and after a four-day siege, Americans evacuate the town of Catubig in Samar.
June – General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. proclaims a 90-day amnesty and offers 30 pesos per rifle. The amnesty pledges "complete immunity for the past and liberty for the future." The results of the amnesty were disappointing. It is suspected that many of the natives surrendering were opportunists collecting bounty for obsolete weapons.[42]
4 June – In theBattle of Makahambus Hill, Filipinos rout an American regiment and inflict heavy casualties, but take less than 5 casualties of their own.
1 September - U.S. President McKinly transfers legislative authority in the Philippines from the Military Governor to thisTart Commission.
13 September – In theBattle of Pulang Lupa, Filipino resistance fighters under Colonel Maximo Abad ambush 55 American Soldiers, killing, wounding, or capturing all of them.
17 September –Battle of Mabitac: Filipino forces outmaneuver and routed American forces on Luzon.
2 November – Incumbent William McKinley defeats DemocratWilliam Jennings Bryan in thepresidential election. Bryan was hurt by Aguinaldo's endorsement of the Democratic party.Albert Beveridge, the freshman senator from Indiana, emerged during the campaign as the "golden orator" of Republican imperialism, debating SenatorGeorge Frisbie Hoar, using his tour of the Philippines to claim direct knowledge of the war, holding out a golden nugget from the islands to prove its potential wealth: "I was there."
7 December – American GeneralJ. Franklin Bell beginsconcentration camp policy inBatangas on Luzon - everything outside the "dead lines" was systematically destroyed—humans, crops, domestic animals, houses, and boats. A similar policy had been initiated on the island ofMarinduque some months before. An AmericanAnti-imperialist press argues this policy is similar to thereconcentrado policy of Spanish GeneralValeriano Weyler in Cuba and British GeneralHoratio Kitchener in theSecond Boer War in South Africa.[48]
17 February – Filipino GeneralVicente Lukbán captured on Samar.[51] Resistance continues in the Samar interior.
2 March – Court-martial of U.S. Marine MajorLittleton Waller begins for the January execution of 11 mutinous porters on Samar. Court votes 11-2 for acquittal.
16 April – Filipino GeneralMiguel Malvar surrenders in Luzon, followed by 3,000 of his men. The last Filipino general to surrender in the war.
27 April – The last guerrilla in Samar surrenders.[51]
Court-martial of U.S. GeneralJacob H. Smith for ordering the killing of all males over 10 years of age on Samar. He was convicted, verbally admonished, sent back to U.S., and retired from service.
16 June – U.S. military rule ends; civil government begins.[51]
4 July – U.S. PresidentTheodore Roosevelt proclaims a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.[23]
5–7 March –First Battle of Bud Dajo; one-thousand Moros fortify themselves in an extinct volcanic crater on Mindanao and battle a large number of American soldiers, before virtually all Moros Scouts killed.
^"PNP History",Philippine National Police, Philippine Department of Interior and Local Government, archived fromthe original on 2008-06-17, retrieved29 August 2009
