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Timeline of the Jurchens

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also:Timeline of the Khitans,Timeline of the Tanguts, andTimeline of the Qing dynasty
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Mongol Conquest of Jin (1211–1234)
Ethnic map of northeast Asia prior toJurchen unification into theManchu people (early 17th century)

This is a timeline of theJurchens.

7th century

[edit]
YearDateEvent
667Bojang of Goguryeo plots withMohe people to reviveGoguryeo[1]

8th century

[edit]
YearDateEvent
748Jurchens (Ruzhe) are mentioned for the first time bearing tribute to theTang court[2]

10th century

[edit]
YearDateEvent
900Hanpu of theWanyan clan is recorded to have lived around this time[3]
90727 FebruaryKhitan chieftainAbaoji, also known asEmperor Taizu of Liao, becomes khagan of theKhitans[4]
925AJurchen embassy bears tribute to theLater Tang court[2]
960FebruaryZhao Kuangyin declares himselfEmperor Taizu of Song, replacingLater Zhou[5]
961Jurchens bear tribute to theSong dynasty[2]
973Jurchens raidLiao dynasty[6]
976Jurchens raidLiao dynasty[6]
986Jurchens preventGoryeo from expanding into theYalu River basin[7]
991Khitans attempt to prevent theJurchens from contacting theSong dynasty by erecting palisades to block the land route[3]
994-996Goryeo builds forts in Jurchen territory south of theYalu River[8]

11th century

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1010Second conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War:Jurchens ally withGoryeo in a conflict against theKhitans and emerge victorious[3]
103810 NovemberLi Yuanhao declares himselfEmperor Jingzong of Western Xia[9]
1051Goryeo repels a Jurchen attack and beheads 20 people[10]
1056Goryeo repels a Jurchen attack and wipes out 20 villages that made up their base[10]
1074Wugunai of theWanyan clan unites theJurchens of eastern and northernManchuria and is succeeded by his son,Wanyan Helibo[11]
1080Munjong of Goryeo leads a force of 30,000 into Jurchen territory and conquers ten villages[12]
1092Wanyan Helibo is succeeded by his brotherWanyan Polashu
1094Wanyan Polashu is succeeded by his brotherWanyan Yingge

12th century

[edit]

1100s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1103Wanyan Yingge is succeeded by his nephewWanyan Wuyashu[11]
1104Wanyan clan entersGoryeo territory in pursuit of enemy tribes and defeat Im Gan, takingChongju castle[13][12]
1107Goryeo invasion led byYun Kwan into Jurchen territory succeeds and builds Nine Fortresses in the area[14][15][16]
1108Goryeo returns the Nine Fortresses region to theWanyan clan, possibly in exchange for Poju (Uiju);Yun Kwan is removed from office[15][17]

1110s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1113Wanyan Wuyashu is succeeded by his brotherWanyan Aguda[18]
1114Wanyan Aguda attacks theLiao dynasty[19]
1115springWanyan Aguda declares himselfemperor of theJin dynasty, named after theAshi River, the "Golden River"[18]
1116Gao Yongchang rebels against theLiao dynasty and asks theJurchens for help and ends up getting annexed by theJin dynasty[20]
1117Emperor Taizu of Jin defeats theKhitan army of theLiao dynasty[20]
1118Emperor Taizu of Jin captures theLiao dynasty'sEastern Capital[21]

1120s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1120Emperor Taizu of Jin captures theLiao dynasty'sSupreme Capital[22]
1121Emperor Taizu of Jin captures theLiao dynasty'sCentral Capital[23]
1122Jin dynasty conquers theWestern Capital andSouthern Capital[23]
1123Yelü Dashi is captured by theJin dynasty and leads an attack onEmperor Tianzuo of Liao, who escapes; afterwardsYelü Dashi escapes from theJurchens and rejoins the emperor[24]
Zhang Jue rebels inPing Prefecture and defects to theSong dynasty but theJin dynasty immediately retaliates and crushes his army; Zhang Jue is executed by the Song as reconciliation towards the Jin[25]
19 SeptemberEmperor Taizu of Jin dies and is succeeded by his brother Wuqimai, who becomesEmperor Taizong of Jin[26]
1124Emperor Tianzuo of Liao attacks theJin dynasty despite warnings fromYelü Dashi[24]
Jin dynasty vassalizes theWestern Xia[26]
112526 MarchEmperor Tianzuo of Liao is captured by theJin dynasty; so ends theLiao dynasty[24]
NovemberJin dynasty invades theSong dynasty and occupiesShanxi andHebei[25]
112631 JanuaryJin army lays siege toKaifeng[27] - earliest recorded use of thunderclapbombs[28]
5 MarchJin army retreats fromKaifeng after theSong dynasty promises to pay an annual indemnity[27]
summerJin dynasty vassalizesGoryeo[29]
JuneJin dynasty defeats twoSong armies[27]
DecemberJin army returns withfire arrows andgunpowder bombs and lays siege toKaifeng[27][30]
11279 JanuaryJingkang incident:Kaifeng falls to theJin dynasty and emperorsQinzong andHuizong are captured; territory north of theHuai River is annexed by the Jin[29] - earliest recorded use of "molten metal bombs", suspected to containgunpowder[30]
1129FormerSong official Liu Yu is enthroned as emperor of theJin puppet state of Qi[31]
Yelü Dashi annexes twoJin tribes[32]

1130s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1132Siege of De'an:Jin dynasty fails to captureDe'an - earliest recorded use of thefire lance[33][34][35]
Yelü Yudu rebels against the Jurchens[36]
1134Yelü Dashi launches an invasion of theJin dynasty, which ends in failure[37]
11359 FebruaryEmperor Taizong of Jin dies and Hela, a grandson ofEmperor Taizu of Jin, succeeds him asEmperor Xizong of Jin[38]
Jin puppet state Qi capturesXiangyang[38]
Yue Fei of theSong dynasty retaliates and recaptures much of the lost territory[38]
1137TheJin puppet state of Qi is dissolved and Liu Yu is sent off to live out his life under supervised retirement[38]
Khitans raidJin dynasty[39]

1140s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1140Yue Fei launches a successful attack against theJin and makes considerable territorial gains, but is forced to withdraw byEmperor Gaozong of Song[40]
1142OctoberSong andJin agree to theTreaty of Shaoxing which stipulates that the Song must pay Jin an annual indemnity; theHuai River is settled as the boundary between the two states[41][40]
1146Khabul Khan of theKhamag Mongols rebels against theJin dynasty[42]

1150s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
11509 JanuaryEmperor Xizong of Jin is murdered by his cousin,Wanyan Liang, who ascends theJin throne as "Prince of Hailing"[43]
1152ThePrince of Hailing relocates to theCentral Capital[44]
1153TheJin dynasty starts issuing paper money calledjiaochao ('exchange notes')[45]
1157ThePrince of Hailing orders the destruction of palace structures in theSupreme Capital[44]

1160s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1161Khitans rebel against theJin dynasty[46]
27 OctoberThePrince of Hailing's cousin Wulu is proclaimedEmperor Shizong of Jin in a coup[47]
16 NovemberBattle of Tangdao: ASong fleet sinks aJin fleet off the shore ofShandong peninsula - earliest recorded use offire arrows in naval combat[48]
26–27 NovemberBattle of Caishi:Song treadmill boats sink aJin fleet on theYangtze - earliest recorded use of thunderclapbombs in ship combat[48]
15 DecemberThePrince of Hailing is murdered by a group of officers[47]
1163TheKhitan rebellion is defeated by theJin dynasty[46]
1165Song andJin conclude a peace treaty[49]

1170s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1175Naimans andKankalis submit to theJin dynasty[50]

1180s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
118920 JanuaryEmperor Shizong of Jin dies and his grandson Madage succeeds him asEmperor Zhangzong of Jin[51]

1190s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1190TheTatars declare independence from theJin dynasty[52]
1192Jin dynasty starts constructing fortifications in the northwest to prevent depredations by theMongols[53]
1196Jin andMongol troops carry out a punitive expedition against theTatars[52]
1194TheYellow River changes course and causes mass devastation to surrounding regions[51]

13th century

[edit]

1200s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1204Song forces start showing military aggression along theJin border[54]
1206springKokochu, also known as Teb Tengri, chief shaman of theMongols, bestows upon Temüjin the title ofGenghis Khan, "Oceanic Ruler" of theMongol Empire, at thekurultai ofBurkhan Khaldun, sacred mountain of the Mongols[55]
20 JuneSong dynasty declares war onJin dynasty[54]
DecemberThe governor-general ofSichuan, Wu Xi, defects to theJin dynasty[56]
120729 MarchSong loyalists kill Wu Xi[56]
Song forces slaughter aJin camp, killing 2000 men and 800 horses - earliest recorded use of thunderclapbombs in open combat[57]
AprilSong andJin enter a stalemate[56]
12082 NovemberSong andJin agree to a peace renewing the Song's tributary relationship with the Jin[58]
29 DecemberEmperor Zhangzong of Jin dies and his uncle,Wanyan Yongji, takes theJin throne and becomes "Prince Shao of Wei"[59]

1210s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1210Genghis Khan breaks off tributary relations with theJin dynasty[52]
1211OctoberBattle of Yehuling:Genghis Khan invades theJin dynasty and defeats their army before retreating[60]
1212autumnMongols attack theJin dynasty[60]
Yelü Liuge along with hisKhitan followers in northern and centralManchuria defect to theMongols[61]
1213springMongols break through theJuyong Pass and plunderHebei,Shandong, andShanxi[60]
11 SeptemberPrince Shao of Wei is murdered by the generalHushahu, who installs the previous ruler's nephew Wudubu asEmperor Xuanzong of Jin[60]
1214winterMongols blockade theCentral Capital but retreat after peace negotiations[60]
Emperor Xuanzong of Jin relocates to theSouthern Capital[62]
Yang Anguo rebels against theJin dynasty inShandong and is crushed[63]
Jin troops attackYelü Liuge but fails[61]
1215springJurchen generalWannu declares independence and the state of Dazhen at theSupreme Capital[61]
31 MayBattle of Zhongdu:Mongols return and capture theCentral Capital[62]
"Red Coat" rebels rise up inShandong[63]
1217Jin dynasty invadesSong dynasty but is repelled[64]
Western Xia invadesJin dynasty but is repelled[64]

1220s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1221Jin troops takeQi Prefecture - earliest recorded use of iron casingbombs[65]
122414 JanuaryEmperor Xuanzong of Jin dies and his son Ningjiasu succeeds him asEmperor Aizong of Jin[66]
Song andJin cease hostilities[66]
1225Jin andWestern Xia cease hostilities[66]
1227SeptemberEmperor Mozhu of Western Xia surrenders to theMongol Empire and is promptly executed; so ends theWestern Xia[67]

1230s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1230Ögedei Khan of theMongol Empire renews the invasion of theJin dynasty[68]
1231Jin troops destroy aMongol warship - earliest recorded use ofthunder crash bombs[69]
12328 AprilSiege of Kaifeng (1232):Mongol generalSubutai lays siege toKaifeng - earliest recorded use of reusablefire lances[69]
1233Emperor Aizong of Jin fleesKaifeng[70]
29 MaySiege of Kaifeng (1232):Kaifeng surrenders to theMongols[70]
Mongols annex the state of Dazhen and takeWannu prisoner[64]
12349 FebruarySiege of Caizhou:Emperor Aizong of Jin abdicates to a distant relative, Hudun, who becomesEmperor Mo of Jin, and commits suicide; Emperor Mo of Jin is killed by theMongols; so ends theJin dynasty[70]

1280s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1287Hand cannons are employed by the troops ofYuanJurchen commander Li Ting in putting down a rebellion byMongol princeNayan.[71]

15th century

[edit]

1400s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1403DecemberAkhachu of theJianzhou Jurchens accepts theMing proposition to establish a guard in his region[72]
1404Mentemu of theLeft Jianzhou Jurchens pays tribute toJoseon[73]
1405Mentemu of theLeft Jianzhou Jurchens pays tribute to theMing dynasty[73]

1410s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1411Ming dynasty sendsYishiha intoManchuria to create theNurgan Regional Military Commission[74]
1413Yongning Temple Stele:Ming dynasty sendsYishiha to theNurgan Regional Military Commission to create postal stations and spreadBuddhism[75]
1417AMing Prefectural Buddhist Registry is founded inJianzhou[75]

1420s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1426Ming dynasty sendsYishiha to theWild Jurchens to construct shipyards and warehouses[75]

1430s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1432Ming dynasty sendsYishiha to present seals to Ming-allied Jurchens and to repair theYongning Temple[75]
1433Mentemu of theLeft Jianzhou Guard dies[76]
1434Joseon defeatsLi Manzhu ofJianzhou Jurchens[76]
1437Joseon defeatsLi Manzhu ofJianzhou Jurchens[76]

1440s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1442Fanca becomes leader of theRight Jianzhou Guard while Dongshan becomes leader of theLeft Jianzhou Guard[77]

1460s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1466TheMing execute Dongshan[78]
1467AMing-Joseon expedition defeats theJianzhou Jurchens and killLi Manzhu[78]

1470s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1470The governor ofLiaodong,Chen Yue, attacks the Jurchens and demands bribes from Jurchen embassies[78]

1480s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1480Ming dynasty ceases hostile relations with the Jurchens[78]

16th century

[edit]

1520s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1522Ming dynasty reimposes trade restrictions on the Jurchens[79]

1540s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1548TheHulun Confederation is formed underWang Tai, chieftain of theHada tribe[80]

1570s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1570Wang Gao of theJianzhou Guard raidsMing settlements[79]
1574Li Chengliang killsWang Gao with the help ofGiocangga andTaksi[79]

1580s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1582Li Chengliang defeats Atai, son ofWang Gao, and burns his fort to the ground, also inadvertently killingGiocangga, whose sonTaksi is killed byMing forces in the confusion[79]
1583Nurhaci becomes leader of the "Jianzhou Left Guard" from Li Chengliang[81]
1587Nurhaci foundsFe Ala[82]
1589Nurhaci obtains the title of assistant commissioner-in-chief from theMing dynasty[83]

1590s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1592Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98):Nurhaci offers to fight theJapanese but is refused; Ming reacts with alarm to the size and quality of Nurhaci's troops[84]
1593Battle of Gure:Nurhaci defeats theHulun Confederation andKhorchin Mongols[85]
1595Nurhaci obtains the title of dragon-tiger general from theMing dynasty[86]

17th century

[edit]

1600s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1600Nurhaci creates theBanner Army[87]
1601Nurhaci subjugates the Hada[88]
1603Nurhaci and Ming generals agree to delineate the boundary between their territories[89]
Nurhaci moves his capital toHetu Ala due to water problems atFe Ala[90]
1605Gwanghaegun of Joseon sends an expedition north of theTumen River to destroy the JurchenHoljaon community[88]
1607Nurhaci subjugates theHoifa[88]

1610s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1611Nurhaci subjugates theWild Jurchens[91]
1613Nurhaci incorporates theUla into his confederation[92]
1615Nurhaci increases the number of banners from four to eight[92]
Nurhaci sends his last tributary emissary toBeijing[93]
1616Nurhaci establishes theLater Jin dynasty and rules asKhan[94]
16187 MayNurhaci announces theSeven Grievances which effectively declares war against theMing dynasty
9 MayBattle of Fushun:Later Jin seizesFushun[95]
summerBattle of Qinghe:Later Jin takesQinghe[96]
161918 AprilBattle of Sarhū: Ming forces are annihilated byLater Jin[97]
26 JulyBattle of Kaiyuan:Later Jin takesKaiyuan[98]
3 SeptemberBattle of Tieling:Later Jin takesTieling[98]
SeptemberBattle of Xicheng:Later Jin annexes the Yehe Jurchens[99]
Chahar-Jurchen War:Ligdan Khan attacksGuangning, a horse trading town under the protection ofNurhaci, but is defeated[100]

1620s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
16214 MayBattle of Shen-Liao:Later Jin seizesShenyang[101]
DecemberBattle of Fort Zhenjiang: Ming raids intoLater Jin are repulsed[102]
162211 MarchBattle of Guangning:Later Jin seizesGuangning[102]
1625Chahar-Jurchen War:Ligdan Khan's attack is turned back by a combinedKhorchinJurchen force[103]
162610 FebruaryBattle of Ningyuan: ALater Jin attack onNingyuan is repulsed andNurhaci is wounded[104]
30 SeptemberNurhaci succumbs to his wounds and dies[105]
1627January - MarchLater Jin invasion of Joseon:Hong Taiji is elected khan and subjugatesJoseon[106]
springBattle of Ning-Jin:Later Jin forces underHong Taiji attackJinzhou but are repelled[107]
1629winterJisi Incident:Later Jin forces break through theGreat Wall and loot the region aroundBeijing[108]

1630s

[edit]
YearDateEvent
1630summerJisi Incident:Later Jin forces retreat[108]
163121 NovemberBattle of Dalinghe:Later Jin seizesDalinghe[109]
1633AprilWuqiao Mutiny:Shandong rebels defect toLater Jin[110]
summerSiege of Lüshun:Later Jin seizesLüshun[111]
1634Chahar-Jurchen War:Ligdan Khan of theChahar Mongols is overthrown and displaced byHong Taiji, who takes theImperial Seal of the Mongols[112]
1635Hong Taiji unites all Jurchen tribes under the name ofManchu; so ends the Jurchens[106]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Wang 2013, p. 85.
  2. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 218.
  3. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 219.
  4. ^Xiong 2009, p. 310-311.
  5. ^Xiong 2009, p. cxviii.
  6. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 87.
  7. ^"거란의 고려침입".한국사 연대기 (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved22 April 2019.
  8. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 103.
  9. ^Twitchett 2009, p. 302.
  10. ^ab신천식."김단(金旦)".Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean).
  11. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 220.
  12. ^abLee 1984, p. 127.
  13. ^여진정벌.Encyclopedia of Korean Culture.
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  15. ^abBrown 2014, p. 793.
  16. ^Lee 1984, p. 127-128.
  17. ^Breuker 2010, p. 225-226.
  18. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 221.
  19. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 142.
  20. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 144.
  21. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 223.
  22. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 146.
  23. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 147.
  24. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 151.
  25. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 227.
  26. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 226.
  27. ^abcdLorge 2005, p. 53.
  28. ^Andrade 2016, p. 34.
  29. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 229.
  30. ^abAndrade 2016, p. 34-35.
  31. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 230.
  32. ^Biran 2005, p. 32.
  33. ^Needham 1986, p. 222.
  34. ^Chase 2003, p. 31.
  35. ^Lorge 2008, p. 33-34.
  36. ^Biran 2005, p. 38.
  37. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 153.
  38. ^abcdTwitchett 1994, p. 232.
  39. ^Biran 2005, p. 40.
  40. ^abMote 2003, p. 303.
  41. ^Beckwith 2009, p. 175.
  42. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 238.
  43. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 239.
  44. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 240.
  45. ^Tsien 1985, p. 99.
  46. ^abBiran 2005, p. 52.
  47. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 243.
  48. ^abAndrade 2016, p. 39.
  49. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 244.
  50. ^Biran 2005, p. 57.
  51. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 245.
  52. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 251.
  53. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 246.
  54. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 247.
  55. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 343.
  56. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 248.
  57. ^Andrade 2016, p. 41.
  58. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 249.
  59. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 250.
  60. ^abcdeTwitchett 1994, p. 252.
  61. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 258.
  62. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 254.
  63. ^abTwitchett 1994, p. 256.
  64. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 259.
  65. ^Andrade 2016, p. 42.
  66. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 261.
  67. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 213.
  68. ^Twitchett 1994, p. 262.
  69. ^abAndrade 2016, p. 46.
  70. ^abcTwitchett 1994, p. 264.
  71. ^Needham 1986, p. 293-4.
  72. ^Twitchett 1998b, p. 261.
  73. ^abTwitchett 1998b, p. 262.
  74. ^Twitchett 1998b, p. 263.
  75. ^abcdTwitchett 1998b, p. 264.
  76. ^abcTwitchett 1998b, p. 267.
  77. ^Twitchett 1998b, p. 268.
  78. ^abcdTwitchett 1998b, p. 269.
  79. ^abcdTwitchett 1998b, p. 270.
  80. ^Swope 2014, p. 16.
  81. ^Elliott 2001, p. 52.
  82. ^Elliott 2001, p. 54.
  83. ^Twitchett 2008, p. 29.
  84. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 576.
  85. ^Narangoa 2014, p. 24.
  86. ^Twitchett 2008, p. 30.
  87. ^Swope 2014, p. 19.
  88. ^abcNarangoa 2014, p. 25.
  89. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 570.
  90. ^Crossley 1997, p. 65-77.
  91. ^Elliott 2001, p. 56.
  92. ^abNarangoa 2014, p. 28.
  93. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 558.
  94. ^Twitchett 1998b, p. 271.
  95. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 577.
  96. ^Swope 2014, p. 14.
  97. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 579.
  98. ^abWakeman 1985, p. 63.
  99. ^Swope 2014, p. 24.
  100. ^Narangoa 2014, p. 30.
  101. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 600.
  102. ^abTwitchett 1998, p. 601.
  103. ^Narangoa 2014, p. 34.
  104. ^Twitchett 1998, p. 602.
  105. ^Crossley 1997, p. 74.
  106. ^abElliott 2001, p. 63.
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  108. ^abTwitchett 1998, p. 616.
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  111. ^Swope 2014, p. 102.
  112. ^Crossley 1997, p. 77.

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  • Lee, Ki-baik (1984),A New History of Korea, translated byWagner, Edward W.; Schultz, Edward J.,Harvard University Press,ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2
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  • Luttwak, Edward N. (2009),The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  • Millward, James (2009),Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
  • Mote, F. W. (2003),Imperial China: 900–1800, Harvard University Press,ISBN 978-0674012127
  • Narangoa, Li (2014),Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590-2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, New York: Columbia University Press,ISBN 9780231160704
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  • Rong, Xinjiang (2013),Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, Brill
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  • Wang, Zhenping (2013),Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
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  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000),Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies), U OF M CENTER FOR CHINESE STUDIES,ISBN 0892641371
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009),Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc.,ISBN 978-0810860537
  • Xu, Elina-Qian (2005),HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRE-DYNASTIC KHITAN, Institute for Asian and African Studies 7
  • Xue, Zongzheng (1992),Turkic peoples, 中国社会科学出版社
  • Yuan, Shu (2001),Bóyángbǎn Tōngjiàn jìshìběnmò 28 dìèrcìhuànguánshídài 柏楊版通鑑記事本末28第二次宦官時代, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī,ISBN 957-32-4273-7
  • Yule, Henry (1915),Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, Hakluyt Society
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