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The discoveries of the 118chemical elements known to exist as of 2026 are presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined. There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible.
Each element'sname,atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and notes related to the discovery are listed.
| Periodic table by era of discovery | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group → | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ↓ Period | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1 | 1 H | 2 He | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2 | 3 Li | 4 Be | 5 B | 6 C | 7 N | 8 O | 9 F | 10 Ne | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3 | 11 Na | 12 Mg | 13 Al | 14 Si | 15 P | 16 S | 17 Cl | 18 Ar | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 4 | 19 K | 20 Ca | 21 Sc | 22 Ti | 23 V | 24 Cr | 25 Mn | 26 Fe | 27 Co | 28 Ni | 29 Cu | 30 Zn | 31 Ga | 32 Ge | 33 As | 34 Se | 35 Br | 36 Kr | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 5 | 37 Rb | 38 Sr | 39 Y | 40 Zr | 41 Nb | 42 Mo | 43 Tc | 44 Ru | 45 Rh | 46 Pd | 47 Ag | 48 Cd | 49 In | 50 Sn | 51 Sb | 52 Te | 53 I | 54 Xe | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 6 | 55 Cs | 56 Ba |  | 71 Lu | 72 Hf | 73 Ta | 74 W | 75 Re | 76 Os | 77 Ir | 78 Pt | 79 Au | 80 Hg | 81 Tl | 82 Pb | 83 Bi | 84 Po | 85 At | 86 Rn | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 7 | 87 Fr | 88 Ra |  | 103 Lr | 104 Rf | 105 Db | 106 Sg | 107 Bh | 108 Hs | 109 Mt | 110 Ds | 111 Rg | 112 Cn | 113 Nh | 114 Fl | 115 Mc | 116 Lv | 117 Ts | 118 Og | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 57 La | 58 Ce | 59 Pr | 60 Nd | 61 Pm | 62 Sm | 63 Eu | 64 Gd | 65 Tb | 66 Dy | 67 Ho | 68 Er | 69 Tm | 70 Yb | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 89 Ac | 90 Th | 91 Pa | 92 U | 93 Np | 94 Pu | 95 Am | 96 Cm | 97 Bk | 98 Cf | 99 Es | 100 Fm | 101 Md | 102 No | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Z | Element | Earliest use | Oldest existing sample | Discoverer(s) | Place of oldest sample | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 79 | Gold | 40000 BC | 4600 BC – 4200 BC | Earliest humans | Varna Necropolis | Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the latePaleolithic period,c. 40000 BC.[1] The earliest gold artifacts dating to 4600 BC to 4200 BC were discovered at the site ofVarna Necropolis,Bulgaria.[2] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 6 | Carbon | 26000 BC | 26000 BC | Earliest humans | Charcoal and soot were known to the earliest humans, with the oldest knowncharcoal paintings dating to about 28000 years ago, e.g.Gabarnmung in Australia.[3][4] The earliest known industrial use of charcoal was for thereduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians.[5]Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BC.[6] True chemical analyses were made in the 18th century,[7] and in 1772Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all composed of the same substance.[3] In 1787, de Morveau, Fourcroy, and Lavoisier listed carbon (in French,carbone) as an element, distinguishing it from coal (in French,charbon).[3] | |
| 29 | Copper | 9000 BC | 6000 BC | Middle East | Asia Minor | It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores. Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BC in the Middle East. It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout theChalcolithic andBronze Ages. Copper beads dating from 6000 BC have been found inÇatalhöyük,Anatolia[8] and thearchaeological site of Belovode on theRudnik mountain inSerbia contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BC.[9][10] Recognised as an element byLouis Guyton de Morveau,Antoine Lavoisier,Claude Berthollet, andAntoine-François de Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 82 | Lead | 7000 BC | 3800 BC | Asia Minor | Abydos, Egypt | It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple ofOsiris on the site of Abydos dated around 3800 BC.[11] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 47 | Silver | Before 5000 BC | ca. 4000 BC | Asia Minor | Asia Minor | Estimated to have been discovered inAsia Minor shortly after copper and gold.[12][13] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 26 | Iron | Before 5000 BC | 4000 BC | Middle East | Egypt | There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BC.[14] The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads ofmeteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BC. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of theIron Age around 1200 BC[15] and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.[16] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 50 | Tin | 3500 BC | 2000 BC | Asia Minor | Kestel | First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to producebronze (and thus giving place to theBronze Age in those places whereIron Age did not intrude directly onNeolithic of theStone Age).[clarification needed][17]Kestel, in southernTurkey, is the site of an ancientCassiterite mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC.[18] The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC.[19] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 51 | Antimony | 3000 BC | 3000 BC | Sumerians | Middle East | An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of very pure antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found atTelloh,Chaldea (part of present-dayIraq).[20]Dioscorides andPliny both describe the accidental production of metallic antimony fromstibnite, but only seem to recognize the metal as lead.[21] The intentional isolation of antimony is described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemistJabir ibn Hayyan (c. 850–950).[22] In Europe, the metal was being produced and used by 1540, when it was described by Vannoccio Biringuccio.[23] Described again byGeorgius AgricolaDe re metallica in 1556. Probably first recognised as an element by Lavoisier in 1787.[3] |
| 16 | Sulfur | Before 2000 BC | Middle East | Middle East | First used at least 4,000 years ago.[24] According to theEbers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancientEgypt to treat granular eyelids. (The Ebers papyrus was written c. 1550 BC, but is believed to have been copied from earlier texts.)[25][26] Designated as one of the two elements of which all metals are composed in thesulfur-mercury theory of metals, first described in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana'sSirr al-khaliqa ('Secret of Creation') and in the works attributed toJabir ibn Hayyan (both 8th or 9th century).[27] Designated as a universal element (one of thetria prima) byParacelsus in the early 16th century. Recognized as an element by Lavoisier in 1777, which was supported byJohn Dalton in 1808 and confirmed byJoseph Gay-Lussac andLouis Jacques Thénard in 1810.[3] | |
| 80 | Mercury | 1500 BC | 1500 BC | Egyptians | Egypt | Cinnabar (the most common mineral form ofmercury(II) sulfide, HgS) was used as a pigment from prehistory, dating as far back as the 9th millennium BC in the Middle East.[28] Cinnabar deposits in Turkey, exploited from 8000 years ago, also contain minor amounts of mercury metal.[29] Found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.[30] Recognised as an element, first by medieval alchemists, and later by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3] |
| 30 | Zinc | Before 1000 BC | 1000 BC | Indian metallurgists | Indian subcontinent | Used as a component ofbrass since antiquity (before 1000 BC) by Indian metallurgists, but its true nature was not generally understood in ancient times. A 4th century BC vase fromTaxila is made of brass with a zinc content of 34%, too high to be produced bycementation, providing strong evidence that metallic zinc was known in India by the 4th century BC.[31] Zinc smelting was done in China and India around 1300.[3] Identified as a distinct metal in theRasaratna Samuccaya around the 14th century of the Christian era[32] and by the alchemistParacelsus in 1526,[33] who gave it its present name and described it as a new metal.[3]P. M. de Respour isolated it from zinc oxide in 1668;[3] the first detailed documentation of zinc isolation was given byAndreas Sigismund Marggraf in 1746.[34] |
| 78 | Platinum | c. 600 BC – AD 200 | c. 600 BC – AD 200 | Pre-Columbian South Americans | South America | Used bypre-Columbian Americans near modern-dayEsmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy, although precise dating is difficult.[35] A small box from the burial of the PharaohShepenupet II (died around 650 BC) was found to be decorated with gold-platinum hieroglyphics,[36] but the Egyptians may not have recognised that there was platinum in their gold.[37][38] First European description of a metal found inSouth American gold was in 1557 byJulius Caesar Scaliger.Antonio de Ulloa was on an expedition to Peru in 1735, where he observed the metal; he published his findings in 1748.Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made byWilliam Brownrigg in 1750.[39] |
| 33 | Arsenic | c. AD 300 | c. AD 300 | Egyptians | Middle East | The use of metallic arsenic was described by the Egyptian alchemistZosimos.[40] The purification of arsenic was later described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemistJabir ibn Hayyan (c. 850–950).[22]Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) is typically credited with the description of the metal in the West,[41] though some question his work and instead creditVannoccio Biringuccio, whoseDe la pirotechnia (1540) distinguishesorpiment from crystalline arsenic. The first to unquestionably have prepared metallic arsenic wasJohann Schröder in 1641. Recognised as an element after Lavoisier's definition in 1787.[3] |
| 83 | Bismuth | c. 1500[42] | c. 1500 | European alchemists andInca civilisation | Europe and South America | Bismuth was known since ancient times, but often confused with tin and lead, which are chemically similar. TheIncas used bismuth (along with the usual copper and tin) in a specialbronze alloy for knives.[43]Agricola (1530 and 1546) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead. This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties.[3][44] Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the nametectum argenti, or "silver being made" in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth.[45][46][47] Beginning withJohann Heinrich Pott in 1738,[48]Carl Wilhelm Scheele, andTorbern Olof Bergman, the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear, andClaude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin.[46][49][50] |
For 18th-century discoveries, around the time thatAntoine Lavoisier first questioned thephlogiston theory, the recognition of a new "earth" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then). For some elements (e.g. Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo),[51] this presents further difficulties as theircompounded forms were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements as "elemental" constituents of those compounds were not. Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer.[3][52] In such cases the first publication on their chemistry is noted, and a longer explanation given in the notes.[3][52]
| Z | Element | Observed | Isolated(widely known) | Notes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | By | Year | By | |||
| 15 | Phosphorus | 1669 | H. Brand | 1669 | H. Brand | Prepared and isolated from urine, it was the first element whose discovery date and discoverer are recorded.[53] Its name first appears in print in the work ofGeorg Kaspar Kirchmaier [de] in 1676. Recognised as an element by Lavoisier.[3] |
| 1 | Hydrogen | 1671 | R. Boyle | 1671 | R. Boyle | Robert Boyle produced it by reacting iron filings with dilute acid.[54][55]Henry Cavendish in 1766 was the first to distinguishH 2 from other gases.[56] Lavoisier named it in 1783.[57][58] It was the first elemental gas known. |
| 11 | Sodium | 1702 | G. E. Stahl | 1807 | H. Davy | Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,[59] andHenri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736.[60]Andreas Sigismund Marggraf again recognised the difference betweensoda ash andpotash in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion. In 1797,Martin Heinrich Klaproth suggested the namesnatron andkali for the two alkalis (whence the symbols). Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis onsodium hydroxide[61] andpotash[62] respectively. |
| 19 | Potassium | 1702 | G. E. Stahl | 1807 | H. Davy | |
| 27 | Cobalt | 1735 | G. Brandt | 1735 | G. Brandt | Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously.[63] |
| 20 | Calcium | 1739 | J. H. Pott | 1808 | H. Davy | Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised. Pott recognisedterra calcarea (calcareous earth) as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739. Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically fromquicklime.[3] |
| 14 | Silicon | 1739 | J. H. Pott | 1823 | J. Berzelius | Silicon compounds (rock crystals and glass) were known to the ancients, but its chemical investigation dates only to the 17th century.Johann Joachim Becher (of thephlogiston theory) identified silica as theterra vitrescibilis, andJohann Heinrich Pott recognised it as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739.[3] Silica appears as a "simple earth" in theMéthode de nomenclature chimique, and in 1789 Lavoisier concluded that the element must exist.[3] Davy thought in 1800 thatsilica was a compound, not an element, and in 1808 he proved this although he could not isolate the element, and suggested the namesilicium.[64][65]: 362–364 In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon,[66] and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823.[67] The name was proposed to be changed tosilicon byThomas Thomson in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon. |
| 13 | Aluminium | 1746 | J. H. Pott | 1825 | H.C.Ørsted | Paracelsus recognisedaluminis as separate from vitriol in 1570, andAndreas Libavius proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alumalumina. In 1746,Johann Heinrich Pott published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756.[3] Antoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 thatalumina is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Davy tried to decompose it. Although he failed, he proved Lavoisier correct and suggested the present name.[64][65]: 354–357 Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to isolate metallic aluminium in 1825.[68][69] However, some scientists questioned his isolation. The first undisputed isolation of aluminium was done byFriedrich Wöhler in 1827.[3] |
| 28 | Nickel | 1751 | F. Cronstedt | 1751 | F. Cronstedt | Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known asfake copper (now known asniccolite).[70] |
| 12 | Magnesium | 1755 | J. Black | 1808 | H. Davy | Joseph Black observed thatmagnesia alba (MgO) was notquicklime (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically frommagnesia.[71] |
| 25 | Manganese | 1770 | T. O. Bergman | 1774 | J. G. Gahn | Torbern Olof Bergman distinguishedpyrolusite as thecalx of a new metal, but failed to reduce it.Ignatius Gottfred Kaim might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that. It was isolated by reduction ofmanganese dioxide with carbon. Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was calledmagnesia.[3][72] |
| 9 | Fluorine | 1771 | W. Scheele | 1886 | H. Moissan | Fluorspar was described byGeorgius Agricola in 1529.[73] Scheele studied fluorspar and correctly concluded it to be the lime (calcium) salt of an acid.[74]Radical fluorique appears on the list of elements in Lavoisier'sTraité Élémentaire de Chimie from 1789, butradical muriatique also appears instead of chlorine.[75] André-Marie Ampère again predicted in 1810 that hydrofluoric acid contained an element analogous to chlorine, and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain it. It was eventually isolated by Moissan.[76] |
| 8 | Oxygen | 1771 | W. Scheele | 1771 | W. Scheele | Scheele obtained it by heatingmercuric oxide andnitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777.Joseph Priestley also prepared this newair by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777.[77][78] Before him,Sendivogius had produced oxygen by heatingsaltpetre, correctly identifying it as the "food of life".[79] |
| 7 | Nitrogen | 1772 | D. Rutherford | 1772 | D. Rutherford | Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at theUniversity of Edinburgh.[80] He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6.[81] |
| 56 | Barium | 1772 | W. Scheele | 1808 | H. Davy | Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) inbaryte in 1772. He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggestedbarote in 1782.[3] It was changed tobaryte in theMéthode de nomenclature chimique ofLouis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,Antoine Lavoisier,Claude Louis Berthollet, andAntoine François, comte de Fourcroy (1787). Davy isolated the metal byelectrolysis.[82] |
| 17 | Chlorine | 1774 | W. Scheele | 1774 | W. Scheele | Obtained it fromhydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1810 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.[83][84] |
| 42 | Molybdenum | 1778 | W. Scheele | 1788 | J. Hjelm | Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent ofmolybdena.[85] Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758.[3] |
| 74 | Tungsten | 1781 | W. Scheele | 1783 | J. andF. Elhuyar | Scheele showed thatscheelite (then called tungsten) was a salt of calcium with a new acid, which he calledtungstic acid. The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid fromwolframite and reduced it with charcoal, naming the element "volfram".[3][86] Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language.[3] In 1949 IUPAC made wolfram the scientific name, but this was repealed after protest in 1951 in favour of recognising both names pending a further review (which never materialised). Currently only tungsten is recognised for use in English.[84] |
| 52 | Tellurium | 1782 | F.-J.M. von Reichenstein | 1798 | H. Klaproth | Muller observed it as an impurity in gold ores from Transylvania.[87] Klaproth isolated it in 1798.[84] |
| 5 | Boron | 1787 | L. Guyton de Morveau,A. Lavoisier,C. L. Berthollet, andA. de Fourcroy | 1809 | H. Davy | Borax was known from ancient times. In 1787,radical boracique appeared in theMéthode de nomenclature chimique ofLouis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau,Antoine Lavoisier,Claude Louis Berthollet, andAntoine François, comte de Fourcroy.[3] It also appears in Lavoisier'sTraité Élémentaire de Chimie from 1789.[75] In 1808, Lussac and Thénard announced a new element insedative salt and named itbore. Davy announced the isolation of a new substance from boracic acid in 1809, naming itboracium.[88] As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal toboron in 1812.[3] |
| 1789 | A. Lavoisier | Lavoisier writes the first modern list of chemical elements – containing 33 elements including light and heat but omitting Na, K (he was unsure of whether soda and potash without carbonic acid, i.e. Na2O and K2O, are simple substances or compounds like NH3),[89] Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted "radicals" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si).[75] He also redefines the term "element". | ||||
| 40 | Zirconium | 1789 | H. Klaproth | 1824 | J. Berzelius | Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide inzircon in 1789,[90][91] and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.[64][65]: 360–362 |
| 92 | Uranium | 1789 | H. Klaproth | 1841 | E.-M. Péligot | Klaproth mistakenly identified auranium oxide obtained frompitchblende as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planetUranus.[92][93] |
| 38 | Strontium | 1790 | A. Crawford | 1808 | H. Davy | Adair Crawford in 1790 found thatstrontianite (strontium carbonate) andwitherite (barium carbonate) have different chemical properties, and suspected strontianite contained a new earth. Before him, strontianite is seen as a type of witherite. Strontium was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy.[94] |
| 22 | Titanium | 1791 | W. Gregor | 1875 | D. K. Kirillov[95] | Gregor found an oxide of a new metal inilmenite; Klaproth independently discovered the element inrutile in 1795 and named it. In 1825, Jöns Jacob Berzelius claimed isolation of metallic titanium, but his substance did not react with hydrofluoric acid, whereas titanium does. In 1910,Matthew A. Hunter obtained metallic titanium of 99% purity.[96][97] |
| 39 | Yttrium | 1794 | J. Gadolin | 1843 | H. Rose | Johan Gadolin discovered the earth ingadolinite in 1794. He did not name his discovery, butAnders Gustaf Ekeberg did so when he confirmed it in 1797.[3] In 1808, Davy showed that yttria is a metallic oxide, although he could not isolate the metal.[64][65]: 364–366 Wöhler mistakenly thought he had isolated the metal in 1828 from a volatile chloride he supposed to be yttrium chloride,[98][99] but Rose proved otherwise in 1843 and correctly isolated the element himself that year.[100] |
| 24 | Chromium | 1797 | N. Vauquelin | 1798 | N. Vauquelin | Vauquelin analysed the composition ofcrocoite ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.[3][101][102] |
| 4 | Beryllium | 1798 | N. Vauquelin | 1828 | F. Wöhler andA. Bussy | Vauquelin discovered the oxide inberyl and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.[64][65]: 358–359 Vauquelin was uncertain about the name to give to the oxide: in 1798 he called itla terre du beril, but the journal editors named itglucine after the sweet taste of beryllium compounds (which are highly toxic).Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link proposed in 1799 to change the name fromGlucine toBeryllerde orBerylline, a suggestion taken up by Klaproth in 1800 in the formberyllina. Klaproth had independently worked on beryl and emerald and likewise concluded that a new element was present. The nameberyllium for the element was first used by Wöhler upon its isolation (Davy used the nameglucium). Both namesberyllium andglucinium were used (the latter mostly in France) until IUPAC decided on the name beryllium in 1949.[3] |
| 23 | Vanadium | 1801 | A. M. del Río | 1867 | H. E. Roscoe | Andrés Manuel del Río found the metal (calling iterythronium) invanadinite in 1801, but the claim was rejected afterHippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils dismissed it as chromium based on erroneous and superficial testing.[103]Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium.Friedrich Wöhler then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place.[104][105] Del Río then argued passionately that his old claim be recognised, but the element kept the name vanadium.[105] Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction ofvanadium(II) chloride, VCl2, withhydrogen.[106] |
| 41 | Niobium | 1801 | C. Hatchett | 1864 | W. Blomstrand | Hatchett found the element incolumbite ore and named itcolumbium. In 1809,W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.[84]Heinrich Rose proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed itniobium. American scientists generally used the namecolumbium, while European ones usedniobium. Niobium was officially accepted by IUPAC in 1949.[107] |
| 73 | Tantalum | 1802 | G. Ekeberg | 1864 | J.C.G. de Marignac | Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it afterTantalus from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it).[84] In 1809,W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.[84] In 1844, Heinrich Rose proved that the elements were distinct and renamed columbium to niobium (Niobe is the daughter of Tantalus).[108] De Marignac's sample contained impurities; relatively pure tantalum was produced byWerner von Bolton in 1903. |
| 46 | Palladium | 1802 | W. H. Wollaston | 1802 | W. H. Wollaston | Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discoveredasteroid,Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroidPallas.[109] |
| 58 | Cerium | 1803 | H. Klaproth,W. Hisinger, and J. Berzelius | 1875 | W. F. Hillebrand and T. H. Norton | Hisinger and Berzelius discovered a new earth incerite, considered it to be an oxide of a new element and named the element after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples.[110] Mosander (1825) and Wöhler (1867) claimed to have isolated metallic cerium, but their samples were rather impure.[citation needed] |
| 76 | Osmium | 1803 | S. Tennant | 1803 | S. Tennant | Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium,[111] and published the iridium results in 1804.[112] Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium.[84] |
| 77 | Iridium | 1803 | S. Tennant andH.-V. Collet-Descotils | 1803 | S. Tennant | |
| 45 | Rhodium | 1804 | H. Wollaston | 1804 | H. Wollaston | Wollaston discovered and isolated it from crude platinum samples from South America.[113] |
| 53 | Iodine | 1811 | B. Courtois | 1811 | B. Courtois | Courtois discovered it in the ashes ofseaweed.[114] The nameiode was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813.[52] Davy gave it the English nameiodine in 1814.[52] |
| 3 | Lithium | 1817 | A. Arfwedson | 1821 | W. T. Brande | Arfwedson, a student of Berzelius, discovered the alkali inpetalite.[115] Brande isolated it electrolytically fromlithium oxide.[52] |
| 48 | Cadmium | 1817 | S. L Hermann,F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H. Roloff | 1817 | S. L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H. Roloff | All three found an unknown metal in a sample ofzinc oxide from Silesia, but the name that Stromeyer gave became the accepted one.[116] |
| 34 | Selenium | 1817 | J. Berzelius andG. Gahn | 1817 | J. Berzelius and G. Gahn | While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different.[117] |
| 35 | Bromine | 1825 | J. Balard andC. Löwig | 1825 | J. Balard and C. Löwig | They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825. Balard published his results the next year,[118] but Löwig did not publish until 1827.[119] |
| 90 | Thorium | 1829 | J. Berzelius | 1914 | D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger | Berzelius obtained a new earth (the oxide of a new element) inthorite.[120] |
| 57 | Lanthanum | 1838 | G. Mosander | 1904 | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss | Mosander found a new earth in samples of ceria in 1838.[121] |
| 60 | Neodymium | 1841 | G. Mosander | 1901 | W. Muthmann, H. Hofer, L. Weiss | Discovered by Mosander and called didymium. Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium. Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix "neo-".[84][122] |
| 68 | Erbium | 1843 | G. Mosander | 1934 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper,erbia, andterbia.[123] The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red. But in 1860,Nils Johan Berlin could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth.Marc Delafontaine adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved in 1878 that the yellow earth also existed. At the prompting ofJean Charles Galissard de Marignac, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices.[52] |
| 65 | Terbium | 1843 | G. Mosander | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | |
| 44 | Ruthenium | 1844 | K. Claus | 1844 | K. Claus | Gottfried Wilhelm Osann thought that he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples in 1826, which he named polinium, pluranium, and ruthenium in 1828. But his results were questioned and he did not have enough quantities to isolate them, so he withdrew his claims in 1829.[124] However, in 1844Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name "ruthenium".[125] |
| 55 | Caesium | 1860 | G. R. Kirchhoff andR. Bunsen | 1882 | C. Setterberg | Kirchhoff and Bunsen were the first to suggest finding new elements byspectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blueemission lines in a sample ofDürkheimmineral water.[126] The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg.[127] |
| 37 | Rubidium | 1861 | G. R. Kirchhoff andR. Bunsen | 1863 | R. Bunsen | Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the minerallepidolite.[128] The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863.[52] |
| 81 | Thallium | 1861 | W. Crookes | 1862 | C.-A. Lamy | Shortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample; later that year, Lamy found the element to be metallic.[129] |
| 49 | Indium | 1863 | F. Reich andT. Richter | 1864 | T. Richter | Reich and Richter first identified it insphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line.[130] Richter isolated the metal the next year.[52] |
| 2 | Helium | 1868 | N. Lockyer | 1895 | W. Ramsay,T. Cleve, andN. Langlet | P. Janssen and Lockyer observed independently a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element. However, only Lockyer made the correct conclusion that it was due to a new element. This was the first observation of anoble gas, located in the Sun. Years later after the isolation of argon on Earth, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently helium trapped incleveite.[131] |
| 1869 | D. I. Mendeleev | Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others. | ||||
| 31 | Gallium | 1875 | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran | 1878 | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran andE. Jungfleisch | Boisbaudran observed on a pyreneablende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that waspredicted by Mendeleev in 1871. He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis.[132][133][52] |
| 70 | Ytterbium | 1878 | J.C.G. de Marignac | 1936 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | On 22 October 1878, Marignac reported splitting erbia (Mosander's terbia) into two new earths, erbia proper andytterbia.[134] |
| 67 | Holmium | 1878 | J.-L. Soret andM. Delafontaine | 1939 | H. Bommer | Soret found it insamarskite and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. Delafontaine'sphilippium turned out to be identical to what Soret found.[135][136] |
| 21 | Scandium | 1879 | F. Nilson | 1937 | W. Fischer, K. Brünger, H. Grieneisen[137] | Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron.[138] |
| 69 | Thulium | 1879 | T. Cleve | 1936 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.[139] |
| 62 | Samarium | 1879 | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran | 1903 | W. Muthmann | Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral.[140] |
| 64 | Gadolinium | 1880 | J. C. G. de Marignac | 1935 | Félix Trombe | Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite.[141] |
| 59 | Praseodymium | 1885 | C. A. von Welsbach | 1904 | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss | Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia.[142] |
| 32 | Germanium | 1886 | C. A. Winkler | 1886 | C. A. Winkler | In February 1886 Winkler found inargyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871.[143] |
| 66 | Dysprosium | 1886 | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.[144] |
| 18 | Argon | 1894 | Lord Rayleigh andW. Ramsay | 1894 | Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay | They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared byliquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated.[145] |
| 63 | Europium | 1896 | E.-A. Demarçay | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, provisionally designated the element as Σ, and gave it its present name in 1901.[146] Metallic europium was isolated in 1937.[147] |
| 36 | Krypton | 1898 | W. Ramsay andW. Travers | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[148] |
| 10 | Neon | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[148] |
| 54 | Xenon | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | After neon, Ramsay separated a third noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[149][150] |
| 84 | Polonium | 1898 | P. andM. Curie | 1946 | W. H. Beamer and C. R. Maxwell | In an experiment done on 13 July 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained frompitchblende, which they ascribed to an unknown element. Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium.[151] Pure polonium was obtained in 1946.[152] |
| 88 | Radium | 1898 | P. andM. Curie | 1910 | Marie Curie andAndré-Louis Debierne | The Curies reported on 26 December 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated fromuraninite.[153] In September 1910, Marie Curie andAndré-Louis Debierne announced that they had isolated radium as a puremetal.[154][155] |
| 86 | Radon | 1899 | E. Rutherford andR. B. Owens | 1910 | W. Ramsay andR. Whytlaw-Gray | Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. In 1900,Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium. Since "radon" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former.[156][157] |
| 89 | Actinium | 1902 | F. O. Giesel | 1955 | Joseph G. Stites, Murrell L. Salutsky, Bob D. Stone | Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named itemanium.[158]André-Louis Debierne had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new elementactinium that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89. But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had samples containing element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery.[159] |
| 71 | Lutetium | 1906 | C. A. von Welsbach andG. Urbain | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | von Welsbach proved that the oldytterbium also contained a new element, which he namedcassiopeium (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium toaldebaranium). Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new elementlutetium and the old oneneoytterbium (which later reverted to ytterbium). However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen namelutetium was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain. The German Atomic Weights Commission adoptedcassiopeium for the next forty years. Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the namelutetium as it was more often used.[84][160] |
| 75 | Rhenium | 1908 | M. Ogawa | 1908 | M. Ogawa | Masataka Ogawa found it inthorianite in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named itnipponium. (Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.)[161] Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised. However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature.[162] In 1925Walter Noddack,Ida Eva Tacke andOtto Berg announced its separation fromgadolinite, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name.[163][164] |
| 91 | Protactinium | 1913 | K. Fajans andO. H. Göhring | 1934 | A. von Grosse | The two obtained the first isotope of this element,234mPa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, as a member of the natural decay of238U: they named it brevium. A longer-lived isotope231Pa was found in 1918 byOtto Hahn andLise Meitner, and was named by them protactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name.[165][166] William Crookes in 1900 reported his discovery of the radioelement "uranium X", that later was proven to be mixture of uranium X1 (234Th) and uranium X2 (234mPa).[167] |
| 72 | Hafnium | 1922 | D. Coster andG. von Hevesy | 1924 | Anton Eduard van Arkel andJan Hendrik de Boer | Georges Urbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, whileVladimir Vernadsky independently found it inorthite. Neither claim was confirmed due toWorld War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon.[168]Anton Eduard van Arkel andJan Hendrik de Boer were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heatedtungsten filament in 1924.[169][170] Hafnium was the last stable element to be discovered (noting however the difficulties regarding the discovery of rhenium). |
| 43 | Technetium | 1937 | C. Perrier andE. Segrè | 1947 | S. Fried[171] | The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in acyclotron, the first element to be discovered by synthesis. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese.[172][173][174] In 1952,Paul W. Merrill found its spectral lines inS-typered giants.[175] Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna andPaul K. Kuroda: they isolated it from Belgian Congopitchblende, where it occurs as aspontaneous fission product of uranium.[176] The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named itmasurium (afterMasuria), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection.[177] |
| 87 | Francium | 1939 | M. Perey | Perey discovered it as a decay product of227Ac.[178] Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well.[179] Before Perey, it is likely thatStefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, andFriedrich Paneth had observed the decay of227Ac to223Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak ofWorld War I.[179] | ||
| 93 | Neptunium | 1940 | E.M. McMillan andH. Abelson | 1945 | S. Fried | Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it was the firsttransuranium element discovered.[180] Shortly before that,Yoshio Nishina andKenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope237U and found that it beta decays into23793, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long. McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used239U, as23993 has a much shorter half-life.[181] McMillan and Abelson found that23993 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93.[182] Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al. in 1952.[183] |
| 85 | Astatine | 1940 | D. R. Corson,K. R. MacKenzie andE. Segrè | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.[184] In 1943,Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due toWorld War II, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.'s results.[185]Horia Hulubei andYvette Cauchois had previously claimed its discovery as a natural radioelement from 1936, naming itdor: they likely did have the isotope218At, and probably did have enough sensitivity to distinguish its spectral lines. But they could not chemically identify their discovery, and their work was doubted because of an earlier false claim by Hulubei to having discovered element 87.[185][186] | ||
| 94 | Plutonium | 1941 | Glenn T. Seaborg,Arthur C. Wahl,W. Kennedy and E.M. McMillan | 1943 | H. L. Baumbach, S. Fried, P. L. Kirk and, R. S. Rosenfels[187] | Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons.[188] Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadianpitchblende in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948.[189] The first sample of plutonium metal was created from the reduction ofplutonium trifluoride in November 1943.[190] |
| 96 | Curium | 1944 | Glenn T. Seaborg,Ralph A. James andAlbert Ghiorso | 1950 | J. C. Wallmann, W. W. T. Crane and B. B. Cunningham | Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project.[191] Curium metal was produced in 1950 by reduction of CmF3 withbarium.[192] |
| 95 | Americium | 1944 | G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James,O. Morgan and A. Ghiorso | 1951 | Edgar F. Westrum Jr. and LeRoy Eyring | Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during theManhattan Project.[193] Americium metal was produced in 1951 by reduction of AmF3 withbarium.[194] |
| 61 | Promethium | 1945 | Jacob A. Marinsky,Lawrence E. Glendenin, andCharles D. Coryell | 1963 | F. Weigel | It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945.[195] The metal was later isolated by F. Weigel in 1963, by reducingpromethium fluoride with lithium.[196] Found on Earth in trace quantities byOlavi Erämetsä in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth.[197] |
| 97 | Berkelium | 1949 | G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg(University of California, Berkeley) | 1969 | J. R. Peterson, J. A. Fahey, and R. D. Baybarz | Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles.[198] |
| 98 | Californium | 1950 | S. G. Thompson,K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg(University of California, Berkeley) | 1974 | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz | Bombardment of curium with alpha particles.[199] Californium metal was produced in 1974 by reduction of Cf2O3 withlanthanum.[200] |
| 99 | Einsteinium | 1952 | A. Ghiorso et al.(Argonne Laboratory,Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) | 1979 | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years.[201] Einsteinium metal was produced in 1979 by reduction of Es2O3 withlanthanum.[202] |
| 100 | Fermium | 1953 | A. Ghiorso et al.(Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years.[203] | ||
| 101 | Mendelevium | 1955 | A. Ghiorso,G. Harvey,G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles.[204] | ||
| 103 | Lawrencium | 1961 | A. Ghiorso,T. Sikkeland,E. Larsh andM. Latimer(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms.[205] | ||
| 102 | Nobelium | 1965 | E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov(JINR inDubna) | First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms.[206] Although earlier claims exist, the first complete and incontrovertible report of its detection only came in 1966 from JINR in Dubna, on the basis of experiments done in 1965.[207] | ||
| 104 | Rutherfordium | 1969 | A. Ghiorso et al.(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and I. Zvara et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team.[208] | ||
| 105 | Dubnium | 1970 | A. Ghiorso et al.(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and V. A. Druin et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team.[209] | ||
| 106 | Seaborgium | 1974 | A. Ghiorso et al.(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms.[210] | ||
| 107 | Bohrium | 1981 | G.Münzenberg et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium.[211] | ||
| 109 | Meitnerium | 1982 | G. Münzenberg,P. Armbruster et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms.[212] | ||
| 108 | Hassium | 1984 | G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms[213] | ||
| 110 | Darmstadtium | 1994 | S. Hofmann et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel[214] | ||
| 111 | Roentgenium | 1994 | S. Hofmann et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel[215] | ||
| 112 | Copernicium | 1996 | S. Hofmann et al.(GSI in Darmstadt) | Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc.[216][217] | ||
| 114 | Flerovium | 1999 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium. It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed.[218] | ||
| 116 | Livermorium | 2000 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium[219] | ||
| 118 | Oganesson | 2002 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium[220] | ||
| 115 | Moscovium | 2003 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium[221] | ||
| 113 | Nihonium | 2003–2004 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) and K. Morita et al.(RIKEN in Wako, Japan) | Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team[221] and bombardment of bismuth with zinc by Morita's team.[222] Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004. However, both teams published in 2004. | ||
| 117 | Tennessine | 2009 | Y. Oganessian et al.(JINR in Dubna) | Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium[223] | ||
Probably metallic antimony was being produced in Germany in Biringuccio's time, for later in this chapter he mentions importation of cakes of the smelted (or melted) metal to alloy with pewter or bell metal.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) vol. II, p. 1, note 1;Weisser, Ursula (1980). Spies, Otto (ed.).Das "Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung" von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana. Berlin:De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110866933.ISBN 978-3-11-007333-1. p. 199. On the dating and historical background of theSirr al-khalīqa, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. II, pp. 270–303; Weisser 1980, pp. 39–72. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv. A more detailed and speculative account of the sulfur-mercury theory of metals is given byHolmyard, E.J. (1931).Makers of Chemistry. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 57–58.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)...today's inclination to re-evaluate the work of Delafontaine and Soret has led justifiably to their being included as co-discoverers of holmium.
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