This timeline includes scientific and medical discoveries, products and technologies introduced by various peoples of Russia and its predecessor states, regardless of ethnicity, and also lists inventions by naturalized immigrant citizens. Certain innovations achieved internationally may also appear in this timeline in cases where the Russian side played a major role in such projects.
The kokoshnik is a traditional Russian head-dress for women. It is patterned to match the style of thesarafan and can be pointed or round. It is tied at the back of the head with long thick ribbons in a large bow. The forehead is sometimes decorated with pearls or other jewelry. The wordkokoshnik appeared in the 16th century, however the earliest head-dress pieces of a similar type were found in the 10th to 12th century burials inVeliky Novgorod. It was worn by girls and women on special occasions until theRussian Revolution, and was subsequently introduced intoWestern fashion by Russianémigrés.[1]
Kvass orkvas, sometimes called in English a "bread drink", is afermented beverage made from blackrye orrye bread, which contributes to its light or dark colour. By the content ofalcohol resulted from fermentation, it is classified as non-alcoholic: up to 1.2% of alcohol, which is so low that it is considered acceptable for consumption by children. While the early low-alcoholic prototypes of kvass were known in some ancient civilizations, its modern, almost non-alcoholic form originated inEastern Europe. Kvass was first mentioned in the RussianPrimary Chronicle, which tells how PrinceVladimir the Great gave kvass among other beverages to the people, while celebrating theChristianization of Kievan Rus'. Kvass is also known as a main ingredient inokroshka, a Russian cold soup.[2][3]Six-domedSaint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod built on place of the original 13-domed wooden church, 11th century.
Themultidomed church is a typical form of Russian church architecture, which distinguishes Russia from other Eastern Orthodox nations and Christian denominations. Indeed, the earliest Russian churches built just after theChristianization of Kievan Rus', were multi-domed, which led some historians to speculate what Russian pre-Christian pagan temples might have looked like. Namely, these early churches were 13-domed woodenSaint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (989) and 25-domed stoneDesyatinnaya Church inKiev (989–996). The number of domes typically has a symbolical meaning inRussian architecture, for example 13 domes symbolizeChrist with 12Apostles, while 25 domes mean the same with additional 12 Prophets from theOld Testament. Multiple domes of Russian churches were often made of wood and were comparatively smaller than theByzantine domes.[4][5]Red currantkissel.
Kissel orkisel is a dessert that consists of sweetened juice, typically that of berries, thickened withoats,cornstarch orpotato starch, withred wine ordried fruits added sometimes. The dessert can be served either hot or cold, and if made using less thickening starch it can be consumed as a beverage, which is common in Russia. Kissel was mentioned for the first time in thePrimary Chronicle, where it forms part of the story of how a besieged Russian city was saved from nomadicPechenegs.[3][6]
A birch bark document is a document written on pieces ofbirch bark. This form of writing material was developed independently by several ancient cultures. In Rus' the usage of the specially prepared birch bark as a cheap replacement forpergament orpaper became widespread soon after theChristianization of the country. The earliest Russian birch bark documents (likely written in the first quarter of the 11th century) have been found inVeliky Novgorod. In total, more than 1000 such documents have been discovered, most of them in Novgorod and the rest in other ancient cities inRussia,Ukraine andBelarus. Many birch bark documents were written by common people rather than by clergy or nobility. This fact led some historians to suggest that before theMongol invasion of Rus' the level ofliteracy in the country might have been considerably higher than in contemporaryWestern Europe.[7]A 17th-centurykoch in a museum inKrasnoyarsk
Thekoch was an ancient form oficebreaker, being a special type of one or two small woodensailing ships with a mast, used for voyages in the icy conditions of theArctic seas andSiberian rivers. The koch was developed by theRussianPomors in the 11th century, when they started settling on theWhite Sea shores. The koch's hull was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking (made ofoak orlarch) along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-iceportage. If a koch was in danger of being trapped in the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the surface would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water and onto the ice with no damage. In the 19th century similar protective features were adopted to modernicebreakers.[8]Ancient RussianGudok.
Thegudok is an ancientEast Slavicstringmusical instrument, played with abow. It usually had three strings, two of them tuned inunison and played as a drone, the third tuned afifth higher. All three strings were in the same plane at the bridge, so that a bow could make them all sound at the same time. Sometimes the gudok also had severalsympathetic strings (up to eight) under thesounding board. These made the gudok's sound warm and rich. It was also possible to play while standing or dancing, which made it popular amongskomorokhs. The namegudok comes from the 17th century, however the same type of instrument existed from 11th to 16th century, but was calledsmyk.[9]
Medovukha is an old Slavichoney-based alcoholic beverage very similar tomead, but much cheaper and faster to make. Since the old times the Slavs exported thefermented mead as a luxury product to Europe in huge quantities. Fermentation occurs naturally over 15 to 50 years, originally rendering the product very expensive and only accessible to thenobility. However, in the 11th century East Slavs found that fermentation occurred much faster when the honey mixture was heated, enabling medovukha to become a commonly available drink in the territory ofRus'. In the 14th century, the invention ofdistillation made it possible to create a prototype of the modern medovukha, howevervodka was invented at the same time and gradually surpassed medovukha in popularity.[10]
Alubok depiction of the "Wall against Wall" (Stenka na Stenku)fist fighting.
Russian fist fighting is an ancientRussiancombat sport, similar to modernboxing. However, it features some indigenous techniques and often fought in collective events calledStenka na Stenku ("Wall against Wall"). It has existed since the times ofKievan Rus', first mentioned in thePrimary Chronicle in the year 1048. The government and theRussian Orthodox Church often tried to prohibit the fights; however, fist fighting remained popular until the 19th century, while in the 20th century some of the old techniques were adopted for the modernRussian martial arts.[3][11]
Thepernach is a type offlanged mace developed since the 12th century in the region ofKievan Rus' and later widely used throughoutEurope. The name comes from the Russian wordперо (pero) meaningfeather, reflecting the form of pernach that resembled anarrow withfletching. The most popular variety of pernach had sixflanges and was calledshestopyor (from Russianshest' andpero, that issix-feathered). Pernach was the first form of the flanged mace to find wide usage. It was perfectly suited to defeatplate armour andplate mail. In later times it was often used as a symbol of power by military leaders inEastern Europe.[12]
Theshashka is a special kind ofsabre, a very sharp, single-edged, single-handed, andguardlesssword. In appearance, the shashka is midway between a full sabre and a straight sword. It has a slightly curved blade, and could be effective for both slashing and thrusting. Originally the shashka was developed in the 12th century byCircassians in theNorthern Caucasus. These lands were integrated into theRussian Empire in the 18th century. By that time shashka was adopted as their main cold weapon by RussianCossacks.[13]Treshchotka
Thetreshchotka, sometimes referred in plural astreshchotki, is aRussian folk musicidiophone instrument which is used to imitatehand clapping. Basically it is a set of small boards on a string that get clapped together as a group. There are no known documents confirming the usage of the treshchotka in ancient Russia, however, the remnants of what might have been the earliest 12th-century treshchotka were recently found inNovgorod.[14]
The bear spear orrogatina was a medieval type ofspear used inbear hunting and also to hunt other large animals, likewisents andwar horses. The sharpened head of a bear spear was enlarged and usually had the form of abay leaf. Right under the head there was a short crosspiece that helped to fix the spear in the body of an animal. Often it was placed against the ground on its rear point, which made it easier to absorb the impact of the attacking beast. The Russian chronicles first mention rogatina as a military weapon in the year 1149, and as a hunting weapon in the year 1255.[15]
Thesokha is a light woodenplough which could be pulled by one horse. Its origin was in northernRussia, most likely in theNovgorod Republic, where it was used as early as in the 13th century. A characteristic feature of sokha construction is the bifurcated plowing tip (рассоха), so that a sokha has two plowshares, later made of metal, which cut the soil. The sokha is an evolution of ascratch-plough by an addition of aspade-like detail which turns the cut soil over (in regular ploughs the curvedmouldboard both cuts and turns the soil).[16]Preparation ofpelmeni, withkhokhloma handicraft seen on the background.
The onion dome is adome whose shape resembles anonion. Such domes are often larger in diameter than thedrum upon which they are set, and their height usually exceeds their width. The whole bulbous structure tapers smoothly to a point. The so-called onion dome is the dominant form for church domes inRussia, and though the earliest preserved Russian domes of the type date from the 16th century, illustrations of the old chronicles indicate that they were used since the late 13th century.[18]
Lapta is a Russianball game played with abat, similar to modernbaseball. The game is played outside on a field the size of 20 x 25sazhens (about 140 x 175 feet). Points are earned by hitting the ball, served by a player of the opposite team, and sending it as far as possible, then running across the field to thekon line, and if possible running back to thegorod line. The running player should try to avoid being hit with the ball, which is thrown by opposing team members. The most ancient balls and bats for lapta were found in 14th-century layers during excavations inNovgorod.[19]
Azvonnitsa is a large rectangular structure containing multiplearches orbeams that carrybells, wherebell ringers stand on its basement level and perform the ringing using long ropes, like playing on a kind of giantmusical instrument. It was an alternative tobell tower in the medieval architecture ofRussia and someEastern European countries. Zvonnitsa appeared in Russia in the 14th century and was widely used until the 17th century. Sometimes it was mounted right atop thechurch building, resulting in the special type of church calledpod zvonom ("under ringing") orizhe pod kolokoly ("under bells"). The most famous example of this type of a church is the Church ofSt. Ivan of the Ladder adjacent to theIvan the Great Bell Tower in theMoscow Kremlin.[20][21]
Anbur script The alphabet was introduced by a Russian missionary, Stepan Khrap, also known as Saint Stephen of Perm (Степан Храп, св. Стефан Пермский) in 1372. The name Abur is derived from the names of the first two characters: An and Bur. The alphabet derived from Cyrillic and Greek, and Komi tribal signs, the latter being similar in the appearance to runes or siglas poveiras, because they were created by incisions, rather than by usual writing. The alphabet was in use until the 17th century, when it was superseded by the Cyrillic script. Abur was also used as cryptographic writing for the Russian language.
Thesarafan is a long, shapelesspinafore-typejumper dress, a part of the traditionalRussian folk costume worn by women and girls. Sarafans could be of single piece construction with thin shoulder straps over which acorset is sometimes worn, giving the shape of the body of a smallertriangle over a larger one. It comes in different styles such as the simpler black, flower- or check-patterned versions formerly used for everyday wear, or elaborate brocade versions formerly reserved for special occasions. Chronicles first mention it in the year 1376, and since that time it was worn well until the 20th century. It is now worn as afolk costume for performing Russian folk songs andfolk dancing. Plain sarafans are still designed and worn today as a summer-time light dress.[22][23]
Thebardiche was a long poleaxe, that is a type of weapon combining the features of anaxe and apolearm, known primarily inEastern Europe where it was used instead ofhalberds. Occasionally such weapons were made inAntiquity andEarly Middle Ages, but the regular and widespread usage of bardiches started in early-15th-century Russia. It was probably developed from theScandinavianbroad axe, but in Scandinavia it appeared only in the late 15th century. In the 16th century the bardiche became a weapon associated with thestreltsy, Russian guardsmen armed withfirearms, who used bardiches to rest handguns upon when firing.[24]
Theboyar hat, also known asgorlatnaya hat, was afur hat worn by Russian nobility between the 15th and 17th centuries, most notably byboyars, for whom it was a sign of their social status. The higher hat indicated higher status. In average, it was oneell in height, having the form of acylinder with more broad upper part,velvet orbrocade on top and a main body made offox,marten orsable fur. Today the hat is sometimes used in the Russianfashion.[25]
Thegulyay-gorod (literally "wandering town") was a mobile fortification made from large wall-sized prefabricated shields set onwagons orsleds, a development of thewagon fort concept. The usage of installable shields instead of permanently armoured wagons was cheaper and allowed more possible configurations to be assembled. Such mobile structures were used mostly in the opensteppe, where few natural shelters could be found. The wide-scale usage of gulyay-gorod started during theRusso-Kazan Wars, and later it was often used by theUkrainian Cossacks.[26]
Ukha is a Russian soup, made withbroth and fish likesalmon orcod,root vegetables, parsley root,leek,potato, bay leaf,lime,dill, greenparsley and spiced with black pepper, cinnamon and cloves. Fish likeperch,tenches,sheatfish andburbot were used to add flavour to the soup.Ukha as a name in theRussian cuisine for fish broth was established only in the late 17th to early 18th centuries. In earlier times this name was first given to thick meat broths, and then later chicken. Beginning from the 15th century, fish was used more and more often to prepare ukha, thus creating a dish that had a distinctive taste among soups.[27]
TheRussian oven orRussian stove is a unique type ofoven/furnace that first appeared in the early 15th century. The Russian oven is usually placed in the centre of theizba, a traditional Russian dwelling, and plays an immense role in the traditionalRussian culture and way of life. It is used both for cooking and domestic heating and is designed to retain heat for long periods of time. This is achieved by channeling the smoke and hot air produced by combustion through a complex labyrinth of passages, warming the bricks from which the oven is constructed. In winter people may sleep on top of the oven to keep warm. As well as warming and cooking, the Russian oven can be used for washing. A grown man can easily fit inside, and during theGreat Patriotic War some people escaped the Nazis by hiding in ovens. Porridge or pancakes prepared in such an oven may differ in taste from the same meal prepared on a modern stove or range. The process of cooking in a traditional Russian oven can be called "languor" - holding dishes for a long period of time at a steady temperature. Foods that are believed to acquire a distinctive character from being prepared in a Russian oven includebaked milk,pearl barley,mushrooms cooked insour cream, or even a simple potato.[28][29]
Rassolnik is a Russian soup made frompickled cucumbers,pearl barley and pork or beefkidneys, though a vegetarian version also exists. The dish is known from the 15th century, when it was initially calledkalya. The key part of rassolnik israssol, a liquid based on the juice of pickled cucumbers with some additions, famous for its usage inhangover treatment.[30]
Russian vodka is perhaps the world's most famous national brand ofvodka, that is adistilledliquor, composed solely ofwater andethanol with possible traces of impurities and flavorings. Vodka is one of the world's most popular liquors. It is made byfermentation ofrye,wheat,potatoes, grapes, orsugar beetmolasses. Alcoholic content usually ranges between 35 and 50 percent byvolume. The standard Russian vodka is 40 percent alcohol by volume (80alcoholic proof). The exact origins of vodka cannot be traced definitively, but almost certainly vodka as a beverage comes from 14th–15th-centuryEastern Europe. Russia is often named the birthplace of vodka. Thedistillation apparatus was known inMoscow from the late 14th century and was used to producespirit, the precursor of vodka. According to Russian food historianWilliam Pokhlyobkin, the first original recipe of Russian vodka was produced around 1430 by a monk calledIsidore fromChudov Monastery inside theMoscow Kremlin.[31]
Thekokoshnik is a semicircular or keel-like exterior decorative element in the traditionalRussian architecture, a type ofcorbelblind arch. The name was inspired by thetraditional Russian women's head-dress. Kokoshniks were used in Russian church architecture in the 16th century, while in the 17th century their popularity reached the highest point. Kokoshniks were placed on walls, at the basement oftented roofs ortholobates, or over the window frames, or in rows above thevaults.[32]
Thetented roof masonry was a technique widely used in theRussian architecture in the 16th and 17th centuries. Before that timetented roofs (conical, or actuallypolygonal roofs) were made of wood and used in the wooden churches. These hipped roofs are thought to have originated in the Russian North, as they prevented snow from piling up on wooden buildings during long winters. Wooden tents also were used to covertowers inkremlins, or even applied in some common buildings, like it was inWestern Europe, but the thin, pointed, nearly conical roofs of the similar shape made ofbrick orstone became a unique form in Russian church architecture. Some scholars, however, argue that hipped roofs have something in common with EuropeanGothicspires, and even tend to call this style 'Russian Gothic'. The Ascension church ofKolomenskoye, built in 1532 to commemorate the birth of the first RussianTsarIvan IV, is often considered the first tented roof church, but recent studies show that the earliest use of the stone tented roof was in the Trinity Church inAlexandrov, built in the 1510s.[33]
TheRussian abacus orschoty (literally "counts") is adecimal type ofabacus that has a single slanted deck in a unique vertical layout, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four beads, for quarter-ruble fractions, that is usually near the user). It was developed in Russia from the late 16th century, at the time when abacus already was falling out of use in theWestern Europe. However, the decimality of the Russian abacus (explained byRussian ruble's being the world's firstdecimal currency) and its simplicity (compared to the previous European and Asian versions) led to the wide use of this device in Russia well until the advent ofelectronic calculators in the late 20th century, though it remains in quite common use today.[34]
TheGreat Abatis Line, orBolshaya Zasechnaya Cherta in Russian, was the largest fortification line of theabatis type, built by theGrand Duchy of Moscow and later theTsardom of Russia. Its purpose was to protect Russia from the raids ofnomads of theEastern European steppes, such as theCrimean Tatars. As a fortification construction stretching for hundreds kilometers, the Great Abatis Line is analogous to theGreat Wall of China and the Romanlimes. Most of its length consisted ofabatis, which is a barrier built from felled trees arranged as a barricade. It was also fortified by ditches and earth mounds, palisades, watch towers and natural features like lakes and swamps. Stone and woodenkremlins of the towns were also included in the Great Abatis Line, as well as the smaller forts calledostrogs. The Great Abatis Line was built south ofMoscow between theBryansk woods andMeschera swamps starting from the 12th century, and was officially completed in 1566, exceeding 1000 km in length.[38]
A view of theTsar Cannon, showing its massive bore and cannonballs, and the Lion's head cast into the carriage.
TheTsar Cannon is an enormouscannon, commissioned in 1586 by RussianTsar Feodor and cast byAndrey Chokhov. It is thelargest bombard by caliber. The cannon weighs 39.312 metrictonnes and has a length of 5.34 m (17.5 ft). Its bronze-cast barrel has a calibre of 890 mm (35.0 in), and an external diameter of 1,200 mm (47.2 in). Along with a new carriage, the 2 ton cannonballs surrounding the cannon were added in 1835 and are larger than the diameter of its barrel; in fact, it was originally designed to fire 800 kg stonegrapeshot. The cannon is decorated withreliefs, including one depictingTsarFeodor on a horse, hence the name of the cannon, though now the wordTsar is associated more with the supreme size of the weapon. Several copies of the cannon were made in the 21st century and installed inDonetsk, Ukraine and several Russian cities, while the original Tsar Cannon is in theMoscow Kremlin.[39][40]
Thebochka roof or simplybochka (Russian:бочка, barrel) is the type of roof in the traditionalRussian architecture that has a form of half-cylinder with an elevated and sharpened upper part, resembling the sharpenedkokoshnik. Typically made of wood, the bochka roof was extensively used both in the church and civilian architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries. Later it was sometimes used inRussian Revival style buildings.[41]
Gorodki arranged in thepushka (cannon) pattern behind thegorod line.
Gorodki ortownlets is an old Russianfolk sport whose popularity has spread also toScandinavia and theBaltic States. Similar tobowling, the aim of the game is to knock out groups ofskittles arranged in some pattern by throwing abat at them. The skittles, or pins, are calledgorodki (literallylittle cities ortownlets), and the square zone in which they are arranged is called thegorod (city). The game is mentioned in the old Russian chronicles and was known in the form close to the modern one at least from the 17th century, since one of the famous players in gorodki was the youngPeter I of Russia.[42]
Russian Mountains, as they were called by the Westerners, were winter sled rides held on specially constructed hills of ice, sometimes up to 200 feet tall, being the first type ofroller coaster. Known from the 17th century, the slides were built to a height of between 70 and 80 feet, consisted of a 50 degree drop, and were reinforced by wooden supports. In the 18th century they were especially popular inSt. Petersburg and surrounding areas, from where by the late 18th century their usage and popularity spread to Europe. Sometimes wheeled carts were used instead of tracks, like in theKatalnaya Gorka built inCatherine II's residences inTsarskoe Selo andOranienbaum. The first such wheeled ride was brought toParis in 1804 under the nameLes Montagnes Russes (French for "Russian Mountains"), and the termRussian Mountains continues to be a synonym forroller coaster in many countries today.[43]
TheBird of Happiness is the traditional North Russian woodentoy, carved in the shape of a bird. It was invented byPomors, the inhabitants of theWhite andBarents Sea coastline. The Bird of Happiness is made without glue or other fasteners, by elaborate carving of thin petals for the bird's wings and tail and then using a special method of spreading and curving them. Similar methods are also used in other products of the North Russian handicraft. The amulet is usually made of pine, fir, spruce, orSiberian cedar. It is suspended inside a house, guarding the family hearth and well-being.[44]
Dymkovo toys, also known as theVyatka toys orKirov toys are moulded paintedclay figures of people and animals (sometimes in the form of apennywhistle). It is an oldRussian folkhandicraft which still exists in a village of Dymkovo nearKirov (former Vyatka). Traditionally, the Dymkovo toys are made by women. Up until the 20th century, this toy production had been timed to the spring fair calledсвистунья (svistunya), or whistler. The first recorded mention of this event took place in 1811, however it is believed to have existed for some 400 years, thus dating the history of Dymkovo toy at least from the 17th century.[45][46]
Thetroika (тройка, "triplet" or "trio") is a traditional Russianharness driving combination, using threehorses abreast, usually pulling asleigh. It differs from most other three-horse combinations in that the horses are harnessed abreast. In addition to that, the troika is the world's only multiple harness with differenthorse gaits – the middle horsetrots and the side horsescanter. At full speed a troika could reach 45–50 kilometres per hour (28–31 mph), which was a very high speed on land for vehicles in the 17th-19th centuries, making the troika closely associated with the fast ride. The troika was developed from the late 17th century, first being used for speedy delivering ofmail, and having become common by the late 18th century. It was often used for travelling in stages where teams of tired horses could be exchanged for fresh animals to transport loads and people over long distances.[47][48]
1630Late Muscovite Russian architecture characterized by many large cathedral-type churches with five onion-like cupolas, surrounding them with tents of bell towers and aisles.
Khokhloma is a Russian wood paintinghandicraft, known for its vivid flower patterns,red andgold colors over the black background, and the distinctive effect on the cheap and light wooden tableware or furniture, making it look heavier,metal-like and glamorous. It first appeared in the second half of the 17th century, at least from 1659, in today'sNizhny Novgorod Oblast and was named after the large trade settlement Khokhloma. The handicraft owes its origin to theOld Believers, who, fleeing from persecutions of officials, took refuge in local woods and taught some of theicon painting techniques to the local craftsmen, such as the usage of a goldish color without applying realgold. Nowadays khokhloma is one of the symbols of Russia, and apart from its usage in making tableware, furniture andsouvenirs, it can be found in the wider context, for example in paintings on Russianairliners.[49]
Nikolay Diletsky's circle of fifths inIdea grammatiki musikiyskoy (Moscow, 1679)
In the late 1670s atreatise calledGrammatika was written by the composer and theoristNikolai Diletskii. Diletskii'sGrammatika is a treatise on composition, the first of its kind, which targeted Western-style polyphonic compositions. It taught how to write kontserty,polyphonica cappella, which were normally based onliturgical texts and were created by putting together musical sections that have contrastingrhythm, meters,melodic material andvocal groupings. Diletskii intended his treatise to be a guide to composition but pertaining to the rules ofmusic theory. Within the Grammatika treatise is where the first circle of fifths appeared and was used for students as a composer's tool.[50]
TheTula pryanik is a type of printedgingerbread from the city ofTula, the most known kind of Russian gingerbreads. Usually the Tula pryanik looks like a rectangular tile or a flat figure. Modern Tula pryanik usually containjam orcondensed milk, while in the old times they were made withhoney. The first mention of the Tula pryanik is in Tula census book of 1685.[51]
Thebalalaika is astringed instrument with a characteristictriangular body and 3 strings (or sometimes 6, in 3 courses), perhaps the best-known national Russian musical instrument. The balalaika family of instruments includes, from the highest-pitched to the lowest, the prima balalaika, sekunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika. The earliest mention of balalaika is found in a 1688 document, and initially it was an instrument ofskomorokhs (sort of Russian free-lance musical jesters). In the 1880s the modern standard balalaika was developed byVasily Andreev, who also started a tradition of balalaika orchestras, which finally led to the popularity of the instrument in many countries outside Russia.[52]
The podstakannik (Russian: подстаканник, literally "thing under the glass"), or tea glass holder, is a holder with a handle, most commonly made of metal, that holds a drinking glass. The primary purpose of podstakanniki (pl.) is to hold a very hot glass of tea, which is usually consumed right after it is brewed. It is a traditional way of serving and drinking tea in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and other post-Soviet states.
1693
Naryshkin Baroque. Also called Moscow Baroque, or Muscovite Baroque, is the name given to a particular style of Baroque architecture and decoration which was fashionable in Moscow from the turn of the 17th into the early 18th centuries.
Thetable-glass orgranyonyi stakan (literallyfaceted glass) is a type ofdrinkware made from especially hard and thickglass, having a faceted form. Granyonyi stakan has certain advantages over the other drinkware, since due to its form and hardness it is more difficult to break. It is arguably handier in usage on moving trains or rolling ships, where it is less prone to tip and fall, or slip from hands, and less likely to break upon hitting the floor. A legend says that the first known Russian faceted glass was given as a present toTsarPeter the Great from a glass-maker calledYefim Smolin, living inVladimir Oblast. He boasted to Tsar that his glass couldn't be broken. Tsar Peter liked the present, however, after drinking some alcoholic beverage from it, he threw the glass on the ground and managed to break it. Still Peter didn't punish the glass-maker, and the production of such glasses continued, while the Russian tradition of breakingdrinkware on certain occasions originated from that episode.[53]
Thedecimal currency is a type ofcurrency that is based on one basic unit and a sub-unit which is a power of10, typically 100. Most modern currencies adhere to this pattern. Russia was the first country to introduce such a currency afterdecimalisation of its financial system in 1704, during the reign ofPeter the Great, whenRussian ruble was made equal to 100kopecks.[54]
byAndrey Nartov. A compound slide on a metal lathe adds the ability to turn tapers more easily, and may be used to turn more precise diameters. They are a standard feature of modern manually operated lathes.
Theyacht club is a sportsclub specifically related tosailing andyachting. The oldest yacht club in the world, by date of establishment, is theNeva Yacht Club, founded by the RussianTsarPeter the Great in 1718 inSt. Petersburg (likely, the idea had been devised as early as 1716, when the First Neva Shipyard started building civilian vessels). Though, since it was not a purely voluntary association of members, but an organisation founded by Tsar's decree, the Neva Yacht Club's being the world's oldest is challenged by theRoyal Cork Yacht Club inIreland, founded in 1720. Both clubs have gone through periods of dormancy and undergone various name changes.[55][56]
Rebar orreinforcing bar is a common metal bar (typically made ofsteel), used inreinforced concrete and reinforcedmasonry structures. Rebar was known in construction well before the era of the modernreinforced concrete, since some 150 years before its invention rebar were used in theLeaning Tower of Nevyansk inRussia, which was built on the orders of theindustrialistAkinfiy Demidov between 1725 and 1732. The purpose of such construction is one of the many mysteries of the tower. Thecast iron used was of very high quality, and there is nocorrosion on them up to this day.[57]
Thecast iron cupola was a type ofcupola made ofcast iron rather than made fromstone orbrick as it was in ancient or medieval domes. The first application of this technology is found in the mysteriousLeaning Tower of Nevyansk, completed in 1732. The tower'stented roof had acast iron carcass and outer shell. The second time, this technique was applied only some 100 years later, during the reconstruction of theMainz Cathedral inGermany in 1826, while the third time it was used in thedome ofSaint Isaac's Cathedral inSt. Petersburg, built in the 1840s. The very top of the tower was crowned with agilded metallicsphere with spikes. Since it wasgrounded through therebar of the tower carcass, it acted like alightning rod. Thus, the Russian builders de facto created the first lightning rod in the Western world some 25 years beforeBenjamin Franklin, however it is not known whether that was intentional.[57]
TheTsar Bell, also known as theTsarsky Kolokol orRoyal Bell, is a hugebell on display on the grounds of theMoscow Kremlin. The bell was commissioned byEmpress Anna, niece ofPeter the Great. Currently it is thelargest and heaviest bell in the world, weighing 216tons, with a height of 6.14 m (20.1 ft) and diameter of 6.6 m (21.6 ft). It wasfounded frombronze by mastersIvan Motorin and his son Mikhail in 1733–1735. The bell, however, was never rung because of a fire in 1737, when a huge slab (11.5 tons) cracked off while it was still in the casting pit. In 1836, the bell was placed on a stonepedestal next to theIvan the Great Bell Tower. For a time, the bell served as achapel, with the broken area forming the door. According to the legend, onJudgement Day the Tsar Bell will be miraculously repaired and lifted up to heaven, where it will ring theblagovest (call to prayer).[40]
Bronze Licorne: caliber 152mm, effective range 1278m, height 174cm, weight 707kg, cast in 1849 in the Bryansk Arsenal master Nazarov, currently displayed at the Military-Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps, St. Petersburg.
Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Petersburg.
TheAmber Room in theCatherine Palace ofTsarskoye Selo nearSaint Petersburg is a complete chamber decoration ofamber panels backed withgold leaf andmirrors. It was dubbed theEighth Wonder of the World due to its singular beauty and the large quantity of a rare material (amber is rather hard to carve). Due to its unique history it was also called theWorld's Greatest Lost Treasure. Several generations of German and Russian craftsmen worked on this masterpiece, prompted by several generations of monarchs. Construction began in 1701 to 1709 inPrussia. In 1716 theAmber Cabinet was given by Prussian kingFriedrich Wilhelm I to his then ally,TsarPeter I of Russia. Then it was expanded by Russian craftsmen, and by 1770, when the work was finished, the Room covered more than 55 square meters and contained over six tons of amber. It waslooted duringWorld War II byNazi Germany, brought toKönigsberg and lost in the chaos at the end of the war. In 1979-2003 Russian craftsmen again reconstructed the Amber Room in the Catherine Palace, while the location of the original one is still a mystery.[60][61]
Thescrew drive elevator is an elevator that uses a screw drive system instead of a hoist, like it was in the earlier elevators. The invention of the screw drive was the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, which finally led to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first such elevator was invented byIvan Kulibin and installed in theWinter Palace in 1793, while several years later another of Kulibin's elevators was installed inArkhangelskoye nearMoscow. In 1823, an "ascending room" made its debut inLondon.[63]
1820sRussian Revival architecture is the generic term for a number of different movements within Russian architecture that arose in second quarter of the 19th century and was an eclectic melding of pre-Peterine Russian architecture and elements of Byzantine architecture.
Semen Korsakov was reputedly the first to use thepunched cards in informatics for information storage and search. Korsakov announced his new method and machines in September 1832, and rather than seeking patents offered the machines for public use.
1850sNeo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire emerged in the 1850s and became an officially endorsed preferred architectural style for church construction during the reign of Alexander II of Russia (1855–1881), replacing the Russo-Byzantine style of Konstantin Thon.
ByAlexander Butlerov, one of the principal creators of the theory of chemical structure, the first to incorporate double bonds into structural formulas, the discoverer ofHexamine and the discoverer of theFormose reaction.
Anicebreaker is a special-purposeship orboat designed to move and navigate throughice-covered waters. The first steam-poweredmetal-hulled icebreaker of the modern type was the RussianPilot, built in 1864 on orders of the merchant and shipbuilderMikhail Britnev. It had the bow altered to achieve an ice-clearing capability (20° raise from keel line). This allowed thePilot to push itself on the top of the ice and consequently break it. Britnev fashioned the bow of his ship after the shape of the old woodenPomorkochs, which had been navigating icy waters of theWhite Sea andBarents Sea for centuries.[73]
The gymnasterka was originally introduced into theTsarist army about 1870 for wear by regiments stationed inTurkestan during the hot summers.[74] It took the form of a loose fitting white linen "shirt-tunic" and included the coloured shoulder-boards of the green tunic worn during the remainder of the year. The gymnasterka was taken into use by all branches of the Imperial Army at the time of theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78. Originally intended for working dress during peace-time and patterned on the traditional Russian peasant smock, the gymnasterka was subsequently adopted for ordinary duties and active service wear. It was worn as such by non-commissioned ranks in summer during the 1890s and early 1900s. The officers' equivalent was a white double breasted tunic orkitel. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, the white gymnasterka with its red or blue shoulder-boards proved too conspicuous against modern weaponry and the garments were often dyed various shades of khaki.[75] The smartness and comfort of the white gymnasterka enabled it to survive for a few more years of peacetime wear until a light khaki version was adopted in 1907-09 and worn during World War I.
ByAlexander Lodygin. In 1872, he applied for a Russian patent for his filament lamp. He also patented this invention in Austria, Britain, France, and Belgium. For a filament, Lodygin used a very thin carbon rod, placed under a bell-glass.
The Winogradsky column is a simple device for culturing a large diversity of microorganisms. Invented in the 1880s by Sergei Winogradsky, the device is a column of pond mud and water mixed with a carbon source such as newspaper (containing cellulose), blackened marshmallows or egg-shells (containing calcium carbonate), and a sulfur source such as gypsum (calcium sulfate) or egg yolk. Incubating the column in sunlight for months results in an aerobic/anaerobic gradient as well as a sulfide gradient. These two gradients promote the growth of different microorganisms such as Clostridium, Desulfovibrio, Chlorobium, Chromatium, Rhodomicrobium, and Beggiatoa, as well as many other species of bacteria, cyanobacteria, and algae.
ByAlexander Mozhaysky. Known as one of the earliest heavier-than-air machines to leave the ground under its own power, however still underpowered for a sustained controlled flight.
Apolar icebreaker is anicebreaker capable of operating in the polar waters with their vast and thick multi-yearsea ice. The Russian icebreakerYermak (named afterYermak theconqueror of Siberia) was the first icebreaker able to ride over and crushpack ice. It was built inEngland between 1897 and 1898 afterAdmiralStepan Makarov's design and under his supervision. Between 1899 and 1911Yermak sailed in heavy ice conditions for more than 1000 days. Starting from this vessel, Russia created the largest fleet of oceangoing icebreakers in the 20th and 21st centuries.[81]
Fire fighting foam isfoam used for fire suppression. Its role is to cool the fire and to coat the fuel, preventing its contact with oxygen, resulting in suppression ofcombustion. Fire fighting foam was invented by the Russian engineer and chemistAleksandr Loran in 1902. He was a teacher in a school inBaku, which was the main center of the Russianoil industry at that time. Impressed by the terrible and hardly extinguishable oil fires that he had seen there, Loran tried to find such a liquid substance that could deal effectively with the problem, and so he invented his fire fighting foam.[82]
A progression of techniques used to train actors to draw believable emotions to their performances. The method that was originally created and used by Constantin Stanislavski from 1911 to 1916 was based on the concept of emotional memory for which an actor focuses internally to portray a character's emotions onstage.
Zaum (Russian: зáумь) is a word used to describe the linguistic experiments in sound symbolism and language creation of Russian Futurist poets such as Velimir Khlebnikov and Aleksei Kruchenykh.
This eccentric design differed from modern tanks in that it did not use caterpillar tracks, rather it used a wheeled tricycle design. The two front spoked wheels were nearly 9 metres (27 feet) in diameter; the back wheel was smaller, only 1.5 metres (5 feet) high.
1916Avtomat rifle. Unlike 1890'sCei gas rifle, the Avtomat was designed for 25-round detachable magazines. Contemporary Occidental writers have struggled to classify the Fedorov Avtomat. Some consider it to be an "early predecessor" or "ancestor" to the modernassault rifle,[87][88][89][90] while others believe that the Fedorov Avtomat was the world's first assault rifle.[91]
An artistic and architectural philosophy which was a rejection of the idea of autonomous art. The movement was in favour of art as a practice for social purposes.
A form of modern architecture that flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s. It combined advanced technology and engineering with an avowedly Communist social purpose.
Interlaced video is a technique of doubling the perceived frame rate introduced with the composite video signal used with analog television without consuming extra bandwidth. It was first demonstrated byLéon Theremin in 1925.
Rabbage orRaphanobrassica, was the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through crossbreeding, which was an important step inbiotechnology. It was produced byGeorgii Karpechenko in 1928.
Pobedit is a specialized alloy that is close in hardness to diamond (85–90 on theRockwell scale). It was created in the USSR in 1929 and was used in mining, metal-cutting and as a material for special mechanical parts. Later a number of similar alloys have been developed.[92][93]
Designed by Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin ofTsAGI, theTsAGI 1-EA was flown by Cheremukhin to an unofficial altitude record of 605 meters (1,985 ft) in August 1932.[96][97]
In 1933 surgeon Yuriy Vorony from Kherson in Ukraine attempted the first human kidney transplant, using a kidney removed six hours earlier from a deceased donor to be reimplanted into the thigh. He measured kidney function using a connection between the kidney and the skin. His first patient died two days later, as the graft was incompatible with the recipient's blood group and was rejected.[101] It was not until 17 June 1950, when a successful transplant was performed on Ruth Tucker, a 44-year-old woman withpolycystic kidney disease, byDr. Richard Lawler[102] atLittle Company of Mary Hospital in Evergreen Park, Illinois.
Also referred to as Stalinist Gothic, or Socialist Classicism, is a term given to architecture of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Joseph Stalin.
Kirza is a type ofartificial leather based on the multi-layer textile fabric, modified by membrane-like substances, produced mainly in theSoviet Union andRussia as a cheap and effective replacement for natural leather. The surface of kirza imitatespig leather. The material is mainly used in production of military boots and belts for machinery and automobiles. The namekirza is anacronym fromKirovskiy Zavod (Kirov plant) located in the city ofKirov, which was the first place of the mass production of kirza. The technology was invented in 1935 byIvan Plotnikov and improved in 1941. Since that time kirza boots became a typical element of the uniform in theSoviet andRussian Army.[104]
TheMoscow Metro, which spans almost the entire Russian capital, is Europe'sbusiestmetro system. Opened in 1935, it is well known for the ornate design of many of itsstations, which contain numerous examples ofsocialist realist art.[105]
Thedrag chute orbraking parachute is an application of thedrogue parachute for decreasing the landing distance of an aircraft below that available solely from the aircraft's brakes. For the first time drag chutes were used in 1937 by the Soviet airplanes in theArctic that provided support for the famous polar expeditions of the era. The drag chute allowed safe landings on smallice-floes.
Soviet and Russiandrifting ice stations are important contributors toexploration of theArctic. An idea to use thedrift ice for the exploration of nature in the high latitudes of theArctic Ocean belongs toFridtjof Nansen, who fulfilled it onFram between 1893 and 1896. However, the first stations to be placed right upon the drifting ice originated in theSoviet Union in 1937, when the first such station in the world,North Pole-1, started operating. More drifting ice stations were organised afterWorld War II, and many special equipment was developed for them, such as the elevated tents to be placed on the melting ice and indicators monitoring the ice cracks.[107]
Welded sculpture is an artform in whichsculpture is made usingwelding techniques. The first such sculpture was the famousWorker and Kolkhoz Woman byVera Mukhina.[citation needed] Initially it was placed atop the Soviet pavilion at the1937 World's Fair inParis. The choice of welding method was explained by a giant size of the sculpture, and also was intended to demonstrate the innovative Soviet technologies.[108]
Fire-fighting sport is a sport discipline that includes a competition between variousfire fighting teams in fire fighting-related exercises, such as climbing special stairs in a mock-up house, unfolding a water hose, and extinguishing a fire using hoses or extinguishers. It was developed in theSoviet Union in 1937, while international competitions have taken place since 1968.[109]
Thedeep column station is a type ofsubway station, consisting of a central hall with two side halls, connected by ring-like passages between a row of columns. Depending on the type of station, the rings transmit load to the columns either by "wedged arches" or throughpurlins, forming a "column-purlin complex." The fundamental advantage of the column station is the significantly greater connection between the halls, compared with apylon station. The first deep column station in the world isMayakovskaya, designed byAlexey Dushkin and opened in 1938 inMoscow Metro.[111]
Sambo (an acronym, Самбо stands for САМооборона-Без-Оружия, meaning "self-defence without weapons") is modern martial art, combat sport and self-defense system developed in the Soviet Union and recognized as an official sport by the USSR All-Union Sports Committee in 1938, presented byAnatoly Kharlampiev.[112]
The R-4 was the world's first mass-produced helicopter and the first helicopter used by the United States Army Air Forces, Navy, Coast Guard, and the United Kingdom's Royal Air Force and Royal Navy.
TheAK-47 (other names includeAvtomat Kalashnikova,Kalashnikov, orAK) is aselective fire,gas operated7.62×39mmassault rifle, developed in theSoviet Union byMikhail Kalashnikov. The AK-47 was one of the first true assault rifles. It has been manufactured in many countries and has seen service with regular armed forces as well as irregular, revolutionary and terrorist organizations worldwide. Even after six decades, due to its durability, low production cost and ease of use, the original AK-47 and its numerous variants are the most widely used and popular assault rifles in the world; more AK-type rifles have been produced than all other assault rifles combined.[115]
The technique of using a light beam to remotely record sound probably originated with Léon Theremin in the Soviet Union at or before 1947, when he developed and used the Buran eavesdropping system. This worked by using a low power infrared beam (not a laser) from a distance to detect the sound vibrations in the glass windows. Lavrentiy Beria, head of the KGB, used this Buran device to spy on the U.S., British, and French embassies in Moscow
The magnetotelluric technique was introduced independently by Japanese scientists in 1948[116] (Hirayama, Rikitake),Russian geophysicistAndrey Nikolayevich Tikhonov in 1950[117] and the French geophysicist Louis Cagniard in 1953.[118]
A 2006 editorial written by Marc Monthioux and Vladimir Kuznetsov in the journalCarbon described the interesting and often misstated origin of the carbon nanotube. A large percentage of academic and popular literature attributes the discovery of hollow, nanometer-size tubes composed of graphitic carbon toSumio Iijima ofNEC in 1991. In 1952 L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich published clear images of 50 nanometer diameter tubes made of carbon in the SovietJournal of Physical Chemistry. This discovery was largely unnoticed, as the article was published in the Russian language, and Western scientists' access to Soviet press was limited during theCold War. It is likely that carbon nanotubes were produced before this date, but the invention of thetransmission electron microscope (TEM) allowed direct visualization of these structures.[119][120]
The Tokamak T-4 was tested in 1968 in Novosibirsk, conducting the first ever quasistationary thermonuclear fusion reaction. The first actual experimental tokamak was built in 1955. The Tokamak design plays the basic role in modern projects for power generation based onthermonuclear fusion likeITER.
Sputnik 1, the firstEarth-orbiting artificialsatellite. It was launched into an ellipticallow Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, and was the first in a series of satellites collectively known as theSputnik program.
Anuclear-powered icebreaker is a purpose-builtship withnuclear propulsion for use in waters continuously covered withice. Nuclear-powered icebreakers are far more powerful than theirdiesel powered counterparts, and have been constructed byRussia primarily to aid shipping in the frozenArctic waterways in the north ofSiberia, along theNorthern Sea Route. NSLenin was the world's first nuclear icebreaker, launched in 1957 at theAdmiralty Shipyard and completed in 1959.[121]
The most powerful weapon ever tested. The Tsar Bomba was a three-stage Teller–Ulam design hydrogen bomb with a yield of 50 to 58 megatons of TNT (210 to 240 PJ). This is equivalent to about 1,350–1,570 times the combined power of the bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 10 times the combined power of all the conventional explosives used in World War II, or one quarter of the estimated yield of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, and 10% of the combined yield of all nuclear tests to date.
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (Russian:Салют-1; English:Salute 1) was launched 19 April 1971. It was the first space station to orbit Earth. Developed under supervision ofVladimir Chelomey.
Electron cooling was invented byGersh Budker (INP, Novosibirsk) in 1966 as a way to increase luminosity ofhadroncolliders. It was first tested in 1974 with 68MeVprotons at NAP-M storage ring at INP.
TheArktika class is a Russian and formerSoviet class of the world's most powerfulnuclear icebreakers. Its pilot ship, NSArktika, was the second Soviet nuclear icebreaker, completed in 1975. She became the first surface ship to reach theNorth Pole, on 17 August 1977.[123]
TheKirov-class battlecruisers of theRussian Navy are the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships (i.e., not anaircraft carrier, assault ship orsubmarine) currently in active operation in the world.
Invented and patented in the 1980s by Russian engineer Alexander Kalina. His invention included the first time development of a contiguous set of ammonia-water mixture thermodynamic properties, which provide the basis for unique power plant designs for different forms of power generation from different heat sources.[125]
TheTupolev Tu-160 is asupersonic,variable-geometryheavy bomber designed by theSoviet Union. Although several civil and military transport aircraft are bigger, the Tu-160 has the greatest total thrust, and the heaviest takeoff weight of any combat aircraft, and the highest top speed as well as one of the largest payloads of any current heavy bomber. Pilots of the Tu-160 call it the “White Swan”, due to its maneuverability andanti-flash white finish.[126]
Thethermoplan is adisc-shapedairship ofhybrid type, currently under development inRussia. The key feature of thermoplan is its two section structure. The main section of the airship is filled withhelium, while the other section is filled with air that can be heated or cooled by the engines. This design greatly improves the maneuverability, alongside thedisc shape which helps resist the powerful winds up to 20 metre per second. The projet was started in the late 1980s and the early 1990s, with the first working prototype tested in 1991. That was rather small airship, and the giant thermoplan wasn't built at that time due to the problems caused by the economy crisis of the 1990s. In the late 2000s (decade), the project was revived under the nameLocomoskyner by the Russian companyLocomosky inUlyanovsk.[127]
Nuclotron is the world's firstsuperconductivesynchrotron, exploited by theJoint Institute for Nuclear Research inDubna,Moscow Oblast. Thisparticle accelerator is based on a miniatureiron-shaped fieldsuperconductivemagnets, and has a particle energy up to 7GeV. It was built in 1987–1992 as a part of Dubnasynchrophasotron modernisation program (the Nuclotron ring follows the outer perimeter of the synchrophasotron ring). 5 runs of about 1400 hours total duration have been provided by the present time. The most important experiments tested the cryomagnetic system of a novel type, and obtained data on nuclear collisions using internal target.[128]
NS 50 Let Pobedy is the world's largestnuclear-powered icebreaker, and the largesticebreaker in general. The keel was originally laid in 1989 byBaltic Works ofLeningrad (nowSt Petersburg), and the ship was launched in 1993 as the NSUral, while completed in 2007 under a new name. This icebreaker is the sixth and last of theArktika class. The vessel was put into service byMurmansk Shipping Company, which manages all eight Russian state-owned nuclear icebreakers.[130]
^Кирпичников А. Н., «Военное дело на Руси в XIII—XV вв.» Л., 1976 / Kirpichnikov A.N. Warfare in Russia in the 13th-15th centuries. Leningrad, 1976.(in Russian)
^Киреева Е. В. «История костюма. Европейский костюм от античности до XX века.» Москва. Просвещение. 1976 / Kireeva E. V. The history of costume. European costume from Antiquity into the 20th century. Moscow, Prosvescheniye, 1976.(in Russian)
^abМ.Е. Портнов. Царь-Пушка и Царь-Колокол. Московский Рабочий, Москва, 1990 / M.E.Portnov.Tsar Cannon and Tsar Bell, Moskovsky Rabochiy, Moscow 1990,ISBN5-239-00778-0(in Russian)
^Hopkins, Frederick Gowland (11 December 1929).The Earlier History of Vitamin Research (Speech). Nobel Prize Award Ceremony. Stockholm.Archived from the original on 10 June 2017.It is now generally agreed that the first clear evidence, based upon experiment, for the existence of dietary factors of the nature of vitamins came from the school of Bunge at Basel. In 1881 Lunin, one of the workers in that school, fed mice upon an artificial mixture of the separate constituents of milk; of all the constituents, that is, which were then known, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. He found that upon such a mixture the animals failed to survive and was led to conclude that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain besides these known principal ingredients small quantities of unknown substances essential to life". Such a statement, already half a century old, when allowed to stand out clear and apart from a context which tended to bury it, seems to contain the essentials of what is believed today.
^Fowler, William; Sweeney, Patrick (2008).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Rifles and Machine Guns: An illustrated historical reference to over 500 military, law enforcement and antique firearms... and automatic machine guns, a comprehensive guide. Lorenz Books. p. 68.ISBN978-0-7548-1758-1.
^Walter, John (2003).Military Rifles of Two World Wars. Greenhill. p. 19.ISBN978-1-85367-536-2.
^Musgrave, Daniel D.; Nelson, Thomas B. (1967).The World's Assault Rifles and Automatic Carbines. T.B.N. Enterprises. p. 149; see also discussion on p. 15.
^Rottman, Gordon (2011).The AK-47: Kalashnikov-series assault rifles. Osprey Publishing. p. 7.ISBN978-1-84908-835-0.
^"Победит".Большая советская энциклопедия (in Russian) (3 ed.). М.: Советская энциклопедия. 1975. Retrieved21 June 2020.
^Васильев, Н. Н.; Исаакян, О. Н.; Рогинский, Н. О.; Смолянский, Я. Б.; Сокович, В. А.; Хачатуров, Т. С. (1941)."ПОБЕДИТ".Технический железнодорожный словарь (in Russian). М.: Трансжелдориздат.Archived from the original on 7 July 2017.
^Matevossian E, Kern H, Hüser N, Doll D, Snopok Y, Nährig J, Altomonte J, Sinicina I, Friess H, Thorban S (Dec 2009). "Surgeon Yurii Voronoy (1895–1961) – a pioneer in the history of clinical transplantation: in Memoriam at the 75th Anniversary of the First Human Kidney Transplantation".Transplant International.22 (12):1132–1139.doi:10.1111/j.1432-2277.2009.00986.x.PMID19874569.S2CID12087935.
^В. И. Шмакова Комбинат «Искож» // Энциклопедия земли Вятской Киров: «О-Краткое», 2008. — Т. 10. Книга вторая. / V.I. Shmakova. "Iskozh" fabric // The Encyclopedia of Vyatka Land. Kirov, "О-Краткое", 2008. Vol. 10. part 2.ISBN978-5-91402-040-5(in Russian)
^Creation of SamboArchived 15 February 2006 at theWayback Machine – by Michail Lukashev, first published inPhysical Culture and Sport magazine N9-10/91.(in Russian)
^Poyer, Joe.The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations. North Cape Publications. 2004.
^Rikitake, T. (1948). "Notes on electromagnetic induction within the Earth".Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst.24 (1): 4.
^Tikhonov, A.N. (1950). "On determining electrical characteristics of the deep layers of the Earth's crust".Doklady.73 (2):295–297.CiteSeerX10.1.1.462.5940.NAID10004593077.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.JPG)
_44-%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F_%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2580%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F_%25D0%25B1%25D0%25B0%25D1%2582%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D1%258F_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D1%258B_%25D0%2590._%25D0%259A._%25D0%259D%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0._(%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B4_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B1%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BA%25D1%2583).jpg)
-0_2.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
