Since its launch, TikTok has become one of the world's most popularsocial media platforms, using recommendation algorithms to connectcontent creators andinfluencers with new audiences.[6] In April 2020, TikTok surpassed two billion mobile downloads worldwide.[7]Cloudflare ranked TikTok themost popular website of 2021, surpassingGoogle.[8] The popularity of TikTok has allowed viral trends infood,fashion, andmusic to take off and increase the platform'scultural impact worldwide.[9][10]
TikTok has come under scrutiny due todata privacy violations, mental health concerns,misinformation, offensive content, and its role during theGaza war.[11][12] Countries have fined, banned, or attempted torestrict TikTok to protect children or out of national security concerns over possible user data collection by thegovernment ofChina through ByteDance.[11][13]
Corporate structure
TikTok Ltd was incorporated in theCayman Islands in theCaribbean and is based in bothSingapore andLos Angeles.[14] It owns four entities which are based respectively in the United States, Australia (which also runs the New Zealand business), United Kingdom (also owns subsidiaries in theEuropean Union), and Singapore (owns operations in Southeast Asia and India).[15][16]
Its parent company,Beijing-basedByteDance, is owned by founders and Chinese investors, other global investors, and employees.[17] One of ByteDance's main domestic subsidiaries is owned by Chinese state funds and entities through a 1%golden share.[18][19][20] Employees have reported that multiple overlaps exist between TikTok and ByteDance in terms of personnel management and product development.[21][22][23][24] TikTok says that since 2020, its US-based CEO is responsible for making important decisions, and has downplayed its China connection.[24]
History
Douyin
"Douyin" redirects here; not to be confused withdoujin.
Douyin was launched by ByteDance in September 2016, originally under the nameA.me, before rebranding to Douyin (抖音) in December 2016.[25][26] Douyin was developed in 200 days and within a year had 100 million users, with more than one billion videos viewed every day.[27][28]
While TikTok and Douyin share a similaruser interface, the platforms operate separately.[29][4][30] Douyin includes an in-video search feature that can search by people's faces for more videos of them, along with other features such as buying, booking hotels, and makinggeo-tagged reviews.[31]
TikTok
ByteDance planned on Douyin expanding overseas. The founder of ByteDance,Zhang Yiming, stated that "China is home to only one-fifth of Internet users globally. If we don't expand on a global scale, we are bound to lose to peers eyeing the four-fifths. So, going global is a must."[32]
ByteDance created TikTok as an overseas version of Douyin. TikTok was launched in the international market in September 2017.[33] On 9 November 2017, ByteDance spent nearly $1 billion to purchaseMusical.ly, a startup headquartered inShanghai with an overseas office inSanta Monica, California.[34][35] Musical.ly was a social media video platform that allowed users to create short lip-sync and comedy videos, initially released in August 2014. TikTok merged with Musical.ly on 2 August 2018 with existing accounts and data consolidated into one app, keeping the title TikTok.[36][35][37][38]
On 23 January 2018, the TikTok app ranked first among free application downloads onapp stores inThailand and other countries.[39] TikTok has been downloaded more than 130 million times in the United States and has reached 2 billion downloads worldwide,[7] according to data from mobile research firm Sensor Tower (those numbers excludeAndroid users in China).[40]
In the United States,Jimmy Fallon,Tony Hawk, and other celebrities began using the app in 2018.[41][42] Other celebrities likeJennifer Lopez,Jessica Alba,Will Smith, andJustin Bieber joined TikTok.[43] In January 2019, TikTok allowed creators to embed merchandise sale links into their videos.[44] On 3 September 2019, TikTok and the U.S.National Football League (NFL) announced a multi-year partnership.[45] The agreement came just two days before the NFL's 100th season kick-off atSoldier Field inChicago where TikTok hosted activities for fans in honor of the deal. The partnership entails the launch of an official NFL TikTok account, which is to bring about new marketing opportunities such as sponsored videos andhashtag challenges. In July 2020, TikTok, excluding Douyin, reported close to 800 million monthly active users worldwide after less than four years of existence.[46]
In May 2021, TikTok appointedShou Zi Chew as their new CEO[47] who assumed the position from interim CEOVanessa Pappas, following the resignation of Kevin A. Mayer on 27 August 2020.[48][49][50] In September 2021, TikTok reported that it had reached 1 billion users.[51] In 2021, TikTok earned $4 billion in advertising revenue.[52]
In October 2022, TikTok was reported to be planning an expansion into thee-commerce market in the US, following the launch ofTikTok Shop in the United Kingdom. The company posted job listings for staff for a series of order fulfillment centers in the U.S. and is reportedly planning to start the new live shopping business before the end of the year.[53] TheFinancial Times reported that TikTok will launch a video gaming channel, but the report was denied in a statement toDigiday, with TikTok instead aiming to be a social hub for the gaming community.[54][55] According to data from app analytics group Sensor Tower, advertising on TikTok in the U.S. grew by 11% in March 2023, with companies includingPepsi,DoorDash,Amazon, andApple among the top spenders. According to estimates from research group Insider Intelligence, TikTok is projected to generate $14.15 billion in revenue in 2023, up from $9.89 billion in 2022.[56] In March 2024,TheWall Street Journal reported that TikTok's growth in the U.S. had stagnated.[57]
In January 2025, Chinese officials began preliminary talks about potentially selling TikTok's U.S. operations toElon Musk if the app faced an impending ban due to national security concerns. While Beijing preferred TikTok remain under ByteDance's control, the sale could happen through a competitive process or with U.S. government involvement. One possibility involved Musk's platform, X, taking over TikTok's U.S. business. The move came ahead of aSupreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of a law that would force a sale or ban of TikTok in the U.S. by 19 January 2025, due to national security concerns regarding its ties to China.[59][60] Other potential buyers included Project Liberty's "The People’s Bid For TikTok" consortium[61] of billionaire real estate mogulFrank McCourt withShark Tank investorKevin O’Leary; former TrumpTreasury SecretarySteve Mnuchin; YouTuberJimmy Donaldson (MrBeast)[62] and formerActivision Blizzard CEOBobby Kotick; the seriousness of these potential buyers was unclear.[63] The day before the impending ban, California-based conversational search engine companyPerplexity AI submitted a bid for a merger with TikTok US.[64][65][66][67]
TikTok was downloaded over 104 million times on Apple'sApp Store during the first half of 2018, according to data provided toCNBC by Sensor Tower.[68]
After merging with musical.ly in August, downloads increased and TikTok became the most downloaded app in the U.S. in October 2018, which musical.ly had done once before.[27] In February 2019, TikTok, together with Douyin, hit one billion downloads globally, excluding Android installs in China.[69] In 2019, media outlets cited TikTok as the 7th-most-downloaded mobile app of the decade, from 2010 to 2019.[70] It was also the most-downloaded app on Apple's App Store in 2018 and 2019, surpassingFacebook,YouTube andInstagram.[68][71] In September 2020, a deal was confirmed between ByteDance andOracle in which the latter will serve as a partner to provide cloud hosting.[72][73] In November 2020, TikTok signed a licensing deal withSony Music.[74] In December 2020,Warner Music Group signed a licensing deal with TikTok.[75][76]
Theadvertising revenue of short video clips is lower than other social media: while users spend more time, American audience is monetized at a rate of $0.31 per hour, a third the rate of Facebook and a fifth the rate of Instagram, $67 per year while Instagram will make more than $200.[77] In July 2023, IranianMehr News Agency reported "experts from Douyin" will meet Iranian business in Tehran to enable Iranian exports to China.[78]
In 2023, several high-level executives transferred from ByteDance to TikTok to focus on moneymaking operations. Some moved from Beijing to the US. According to sources forTheWall Street Journal, the personnel move led to concerns from some TikTok employees and was reported to the office of U.S. SenatorTed Cruz for further investigation.[79][80] In December 2023, TikTok invested $1.5 billion in GoTo's Indonesian e-commerce business,Tokopedia.[81] In March 2024,The Information reported that it is anopen secret among investors that TikTok loses billions of dollar annually.[82]
Competition with other platforms
Although the size of its user base falls short of that of Facebook, Instagram, or YouTube, TikTok reached 1 billion active monthly users faster than any of them.[83] Competition from TikTok prompted Instagram, which is owned by Facebook, to spend $120 million as of 2022 to entice more content creators to itsReels service, although engagement level remained low.[84]Snapchat had likewise paid out $250 million in 2021 to its creators.[85] Many platforms and services, includingYouTube Shorts, began to imitate TikTok's format and recommendation page. Those changes caused a backlash from users of Instagram, Spotify, and Twitter.[83]
In March 2022,TheWashington Post reported that Facebook's ownerMeta Platforms paid Targeted Victory—a consulting firm backed by supporters of the U.S.Republican Party—to coordinate lobbying and media campaigns against TikTok and portray it as "a danger to American children and society". Its efforts included asking local reporters to serve as "back channels" of anti-TikTok messages, writing opinion articles andletters to the editor, including one in the name of a concerned parent, amplifying stories about TikTok trends, such as "devious licks" and "Slap a Teacher", that actually originated on Facebook, and promoting Facebook's own corporate initiatives. Ties to Meta were not disclosed to the other parties involved. Targeted Victory said that it is "proud of the work". A Meta spokesperson said that all platforms, including TikTok, should face scrutiny.[86]
The Wall Street Journal reported thatSilicon Valley executives met with U.S. lawmakers to build an "anti-China alliance" before TikTok CEO's congressional hearing in March 2023.[87][88]
TikTok Notes
In April 2024, TikTok users started receiving notifications that their current and future picture posts would be shown on a new app called TikTok Notes. The app is not released yet; however, TikTok confirmed it is being worked on. TikTok Notes will be a direct competitor toInstagram for photo sharing. Jasmine Enberg, a principal social media analyst ateMarketer, observes that launching Notes as a separate app, instead of as a new feature in TikTok, may be done in response to regulatory and consumer scrutiny.[89][90] On 18 April, Notes first released to users in Canada and Australia for limited testing.[91]
Features
The mobile app allows users to create short videos, which often feature music in the background and can be sped up, slowed down, or edited with a filter. They can also add their own sound on top of the background music. To create a music video with the app, users can choose background music from a wide variety ofmusic genres, edit with a filter and record a 15-second video with speed adjustments before uploading it to share with others on TikTok or other social platforms.[92] The "For You" page on TikTok is a feed of videos that are recommended to users based on their activity on the app. Content is curated by TikTok'sartificial intelligence depending on the content a user liked, interacted with, or searched. This helps users find new content and creators reach new audiences, in contrast to other social networks that base recommendations on the interactions and relationships between users.[93][6]
TikTok's algorithm, recognized byThe New York Times in 2020 as one of the most advanced for shaping user experiences and social interactions,[94] stands out from traditional social media. While typical platforms focus on active user actions like likes, clicks, or follows, TikTok monitors a wider array of behaviors during video viewing. This comprehensive observation is then used to refine its algorithms, as noted byWired in 2020.[95] Furthermore,The Wall Street Journal in 2021 highlighted its superiority over other social media platforms in understanding users' preferences and emotions. TikTok's algorithm leverages this insight to present similar content, creating an environment that users often find hard to disengage from.[96]
The app's "react" feature allows users to film their reaction to a specific video, over which it is placed in a small window that is movable around the screen.[97] Its "duet" feature allows users to film a video aside from another video.[98] The "duet" feature was another trademark ofmusical.ly. The duet feature is also only able to be used if both parties adjust the privacy settings.[99]
Videos that users do not want to post yet can be stored in their "drafts". The user is allowed to see their "drafts" and post when they find it fitting.[100]
The app allows users to set their accounts as "private". When first downloading the app, the user's account is public by default. The user can change to private in their settings. Private content remains visible to TikTok but is blocked from TikTok users who the account holder has not authorized to view their content.[101] Users can choose whether any other user, or only their "friends", may interact with them through the app via comments, messages, or "react" or "duet" videos.[97] Users also can set specific videos to either "public", "friends only", or "private" regardless if the account is private or not.[101]
Users may send their friends videos,emojis, and messages with direct messaging. TikTok has also included a feature to create a video based on the user's comments.Influencers often use the "live" feature. This feature is only available for those who have at least 1,000 followers and are over 16 years old. If over 18, the user's followers can send virtual "gifts" that can be later exchanged for money.[102][103]
TikTok announced a "family safety mode" in February 2020 for parents to be able to control their children's presence on the app. There is a screen time management option, restricted mode, and the option to put a limit on direct messages.[104] The app expanded its parental controls feature called "Family Pairing" in September 2020 to provide parents and guardians with educational resources to understand what children on TikTok are exposed to. Content for the feature was created in partnership with online safety nonprofit,Internet Matters.[105]
In October 2021, TikTok launched a test feature that allows users to directly tip certain creators. Accounts of users that are of age, have at least 100,000 followers and agree to the terms can activate a "Tip" button on their profile, which allows followers to tip any amount, starting from $1.[106] In December 2021, TikTok started beta-testing Live Studio, a streaming software that would let users broadcast applications open on their computers, including games. The software also launched with support for mobile and PC streaming.[107] However, a few days later, users on Twitter discovered that the software uses code from the open-sourceOBS Studio. OBS made a statement saying that, under theGNU GPL version 2, TikTok has to make the code of Live Studio publicly available if it wants to use any code from OBS.[108]
In May 2022, TikTok announced TikTok Pulse, an ad revenue-sharing program. It covers the "top 4% of all videos on TikTok" and is only available to creators with more than 100,000 followers. If an eligible creator's video reaches the top 4%, they will receive a 50% share of the revenue from ads displayed with the video.[109] In July 2023, TikTok launched a new streaming service called TikTok Music, currently available only in Brazil and Indonesia.[110] This service allows users to listen to, download and share songs.[110] It is reported that TikTok Music features songs from major record companies likeUniversal Music Group, Sony Music and Warner Music Group.[110] On 19 July 2023, TikTok Music was expanded for select users in Australia, Mexico and Singapore.[111]
After a dispute with TikTok regarding payouts for artists and regulation of AI-generated music content on the platform, Universal Music Group decided not to renew its licensing agreement with TikTok, causing its catalogue of 3 million recordings to become unavailable for usage after 31 January 2024.[112] This marked the company's first instance of withdrawing its music from a major platform, in contrast to Warner Music, which had recently renewed its own licensing deal with TikTok.[113] In March 2024,Universal Music Publishing Group removed its catalogue of 4 million compositions from TikTok.[114] In April 2024,Taylor Swift's music returned to the platform.[115]
Content
Viral trends
The app has spawned numerousviral trends,Internet celebrities, and music trends around the world.[116] Duets, a feature that allows users to add their own video to an existing video with the original content's audio, have sparked many of these trends.[117] Many stars got their start onmusical.ly, which merged with TikTok on 2 August 2018. These includeLoren Gray,Baby Ariel,Zach King,Lisa and Lena,Jacob Sartorius, and many others. Loren Gray remained the most-followed individual on TikTok untilCharli D'Amelio surpassed her on 25 March 2020. Gray's was the first TikTok account to reach 40 million followers on the platform. She was surpassed with 41.3 million followers. D'Amelio was the first to ever reach 50, 60, and 70 million followers. Charli D'Amelio remained themost-followed individual on the platform until she was surpassed byKhaby Lame on 23 June 2022. Other creators rose to fame after the platform merged with musical.ly on 2 August 2018.[118] TikTok also played a major part in making "Old Town Road" byLil Nas X one of the biggest songs of 2019 and the longest-running number-one song in the history of the U.S.Billboard Hot 100.[119][120][121]
TikTok has allowed many music artists to gain a wider audience, often including foreign fans. For example, despite never having toured in Asia, the bandFitz and the Tantrums developed a large following in South Korea following the widespread popularity of their 2016 song "HandClap" on the platform.[122] "Any Song" by R&B and rap artistZico became number one on the Korean music charts due to the popularity of the #anysongchallenge, where users dance to the choreography of the song.[123] The platform has also launched many songs that failed to garner initial commercial success intosleeper hits, particularly since the outbreak of theCOVID-19 pandemic.[124][125] However, it has received criticism for not paying royalties to artists whose music is used on the platform.[126]
Classic stars are able to connect with younger audiences born decades after a musician's first debut and across traditional genres. In 2020,Fleetwood Mac's "Dreams" was used in a skating video and a recreation byMick Fleetwood. The song re-enteredBillboard Hot 100 after 43 years and topped Apple Music. In 2022,Kate Bush's "Running Up That Hill" went viral among fans ofStranger Things, topping the UK singles chart 37 years after its original release. In 2023Kylie Minogue's "Padam Padam" entered the Radio 1 playlist after being shared byGen Z, even though many youth radio stations had refused to play it. Other older artists with strong engagement on TikTok includeElton John andRod Stewart.[127] In Japan, artists from the 1970s to 1990s, such asKohmi Hirose,Yōko Oginome,Akina Nakamori,Seiko Matsuda,Momoe Yamaguchi andSaki Kubota, have become popular on TikTok during the Showa (and early Heisei)retro boom.[128][129][130][131]
A viral TikTok trend known as "devious licks" involves students vandalizing or stealing school property and posting videos of the action on the platform. The trend has led to increasing school vandalism and subsequent measures taken by some schools to prevent damage. Some students have been arrested for participating in the trend.[138][139] TikTok has taken measures to remove and prevent access to content displaying the trend.[140] Another TikTok trend known as theKia Challenge involves users stealing certain models ofKia andHyundai cars manufactured withoutimmobilizers, which was a standard feature at the time, between 2010 and 2021.[141] As of February 2023, it had resulted in at least 14 crashes and eight deaths according to theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[142] In May, Kia and Hyundai settled a $200-million class-action lawsuit by agreeing to provide software updates to affected vehicles and over 26,000 steering wheel locks.[143] In 2023, a trend emerged where streamers acted as if they were video-game characters following prompts from their viewers.[144]
On Douyin, the Chinese version of TikTok, some celebrities who had garnered large followings as of August 2019 includeDilraba Dilmurat,Angelababy,Luo Zhixiang,Ouyang Nana, andPan Changjiang.[145] In the2022 FIFA World Cup, a Qatari teenage royal became an Internet celebrity after his angry expressions were recorded in Qatar's opening match loss to Ecuador;[146] he amassed more than 15 million followers in less than a week after creating a Douyin account.[147]
TikTok food trends refer to popular recipes and food-related fads on the social media platform TikTok.[148] These trends amassed popularity in 2020 during theCOVID-19 pandemic, as many people spent more time cooking at home while engaging with social media for entertainment.[148]
Food-related content on TikTok is often categorized under the hashtags #TikTokFood and #FoodTok.[148] These hashtags have amassed 4.6 million and 4.5 million posts, respectively, according to the platform. Some TikTok users share personal recipes and dietary habits, while others use step-by-step cooking videos to grow their online presence.[149]
The widespread popularity of these trends has influenced various aspects of society, including interest in cooking among younger generations, discussions aboutbody image, the marketing of food products on social media, and temporary food shortages.[149][150][151][152]
Several TikTok content creators, such asEitan Bernath, Jeron Combs, and Emily Mariko, have gained recognition through their recipes and content. Some of the most notable TikTok food trends include the leftover salmon bowl, baked feta cheese pasta, and pesto eggs.[153][154][155]
"Midsize" fashion gained greater exposure on TikTok after many creators opened up about not able to find clothing sizes that fit them well. Women's apparel can roughly be divided into petite, straight, and plus sizes, leaving gaps in between. Realistic videos about how differently pieces of garment fit on a model compared to how they fit on a typical consumer resonated with many who had believed that they were alone in their struggle.[156][157][158]
Cosmetic surgery
Content promotingcosmetic surgery is popular on TikTok and has spawned several viral trends on the platform. In December 2021,Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, the journal of theAmerican Society of Plastic Surgeons, published an article about the popularity of some plastic surgeons on TikTok. In the article, it was noted that plastic surgeons were some of the earliest adopters of social media in the medical field and many had been recognized asinfluencers on the platform. The article published stats about the most popular plastic surgeons on TikTok up to February 2021 and at the time, five different plastic surgeons had surpassed 1 million followers on the platform.[159][160]
In 2021, it was reported that a trend known as the #NoseJobCheck trend was going viral on TikTok. TikTok content creators used a specific audio on their videos while showing how their noses looked before and after having theirrhinoplasty surgeries. By January 2021, the hashtag #nosejob had accumulated 1.6 billion views, #nosejobcheck had accumulated 1 billion views, and the audio used in the #NoseJobCheck trend had been used in 120,000 videos.[161] In 2020, Charli D'Amelio, the most-followed person on TikTok at the time, also made a #NoseJobCheck video to show the results of her surgery to repair a broken nose.[162] In April 2022,NBC News reported that surgeons were giving influencers on the platform discounted or free cosmetic surgeries in order to advertise the procedures to their audiences. They also reported that facilities that offered these surgeries were also posting about them on TikTok. TikTok has banned the advertising of cosmetic surgeries on the platform but cosmetic surgeons are still able to reach large audiences using unpaid photo and video posts. NBC reported that videos using the hashtags '#plasticsurgery' and '#lipfiller' had amassed a combined 26 billion views on the platform.[163]
In December 2022, it was reported that acosmetic surgery procedure known asbuccal fat removal was going viral on the platform. The procedure involves surgically removing fat from the cheeks in order to give the face a slimmer and more chiseled appearance. Videos using hashtags related to buccal fat removal had collectively amassed over 180 million views. Some TikTok users criticized the trend for promoting an unobtainable beauty standard.[164][165][166]
Film criticism
A significant number of users on TikTok, such asJuju Green, create content surroundingFilm criticism andEaster eggs. However, as reported byThe New York Times, these people often do not see themselves necessarily as film critics.[167] These creators would often attendred carpet premieres of movies and interview the celebrities in attendance, which was the subject of significant debate as some considered the questions the creators asked to be disrespectful.[168] By 2022, TikTok released a Showbiz List, highlighting individuals who were having a larger impact on the film industry.[169]
During the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike, such influencers were told that they would be denied future entry into the union if they partnered with struck studios. This led many creators to stop creating new content which they were not already contractually obligated to create.[170] Creators who posted saying that they would not be changing their content, such as Green, were met with significant criticism.[171]
In January 2023,Forbes reported that a "heating" tool allows TikTok to manually promote certain videos, comprising 1–2% of daily views. The practice began as a way to grow and diversify content andinfluencers that were not automatically picked up by the recommendation algorithm. It was also used to promote brands, artists, and NGOs, such as theFIFA World Cup and Taylor Swift.[174] However, some employees have abused it to promote their own accounts or those of their spouses, while others have felt that their guidelines leave too much room for discretion. TikTok said only a few individuals can approve heating in the U.S. and the promoted videos take up less than 0.002% of user feeds. To address concerns of Chinese influence, the company is negotiating with the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) such that future heating could only be performed by vetted security personnel in the U.S. and the process would be audited by third-parties such as Oracle.[175]
TikTok's and Douyin's censorship policies have been criticized as non-transparent. Internal guidelines against the promotion of violence, separatism, and "demonization of countries" could be used to prohibit content related to the1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre,Falun Gong,human rights in Tibet, Taiwan, Chechnya, Northern Ireland, theCambodian genocide, the1998 Indonesian riots,Kurdish nationalism, ethnic conflicts between blacks and whites, or between different Islamic sects. A more specific list banned criticisms against world leaders, including past and present ones from Russia, the United States, Japan, North and South Korea, India, Indonesia, and Turkey.[176][177] In 2019,The Guardian reported that TikTok had censored videos of topics not favored by the Chinese government.[176] That year, TikTok took down a video abouthuman rights abuses in theXinjiang internment camps againstUyghurs but restored it after 50 minutes as well as the creator's account, saying that the action was a mistake and triggered by a brief "satirical" image ofOsama bin Laden in another post.[178][179] Other human rights activists have also said that their TikTok videos discussing human rights violations of the Uyghurs have been taken down.[180]
TikTok moderators were instructed to suppress posts from "For You" recommendations if the users shown were deemed "too ugly, poor, or disabled".[181][182] The consumption of alcohol, full or partial nudity,LGBT, andintersex contents were restricted even in places where they are legal.[183] TikTok has since apologized and instituted a ban against anti-LGBTQ ideology, but censorship continues on Douyin due to regulations in China.[184][185] Douyin guidelines also forbid live broadcasting by unregistered foreigners, "feudal superstition", "money worship", smoking and drinking,competitive eating by the "already obese", "toxic"slime, "pornographic" ASMR such as ear-licking, and female anchors wearing revealing clothes.[177]
ByteDance said its early guidelines were global and aimed at reducing online harassment and divisiveness when its platforms were still growing. They have been replaced by versions customized by local teams for users in different regions.[186] A March 2021 study by the Citizen Lab found that TikTok did not censor searches politically but was inconclusive about whether posts are.[4][187] A 2023 paper by the Internet Governance Project at Georgia Institute of Technology concluded that TikTok is "not exporting censorship, either directly by blocking material, or indirectly via its recommendation algorithm."[188]
After increased scrutiny, TikTok said it is granting some outside experts access to the platform's anonymized data sets and protocols, including filters, keywords, criteria for heating, and source code.[189][190] A December 2023 study by theNetwork Contagion Research Institute (NCRI) found a "strong possibility that content on TikTok is either amplified or suppressed based on its alignment with the interests of the Chinese government."[191] According to its director, the NCRI is an independent non-profit research organization funded byRutgers University, the British government, and private donors.[192]The New York Times commented that "[a]lready, there is evidence that China uses TikTok as a propaganda tool. Posts related to subjects that the Chinese government wants to suppress — like Hong Kong protests and Tibet — are strangely missing from the platform."[193] TikTok subsequently restricted the number of hashtags that can be searched under its Creative Center, saying it was "misused to draw inaccurate conclusions".[194][195]
A historian from theCato Institute said that there were "basic errors" in the Rutgers University study and criticized the uncritical news coverage that followed. The study compares data from before TikTok even existed to show the app has fewer hashtags about historically sensitive topics, distorting the findings.[196][194]
In August 2024, the NCRI released a subsequent report based onuser journey data from 24 accounts that they created across TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube.[192][197] By searching for four keywords—Uyghur, Xinjiang, Tibet, and Tiananmen, the researchers found that TikTok returned a higher percentage of positive, neutral, or irrelevant content related tohuman rights in China. For example, more than 25% of results for "Tiananmen" on TikTok were considered pro-China by the researchers, compared to 16% on Instagram and 8% on YouTube. In other cases, however, Instagram and YouTube showed higher rates of pro-China content than TikTok. For example, 50% of searches about "Uyghur" and "Xinjiang" on YouTube were considered positive, compared to less than 25% on TikTok. The researchers said this is because some YouTube accounts are linked to state actors.[192] According to their survey, people who use TikTok more than three hours daily are significantly more positive about China's human rights record compared to those who do not use the app. TikTok pushed back against the NCRI, saying that making "accounts that interact with the app in a prescribed manner" is not the same as the experience of real users and some of the events being compared happened before TikTok existed.[192]
Extremism and hate
Concerns have been voiced regarding content relating to, and the promotion and spreading of,hate speech andfar-right extremism, such asantisemitism,islamophobia,racism, andxenophobia. Some videos were shown to expressly promoteHolocaust denial and told viewers to take up arms and fight in the name ofwhite supremacy and theswastika.[198] As TikTok has gained popularity among young children,[199] and the popularity of extremist and hateful content is growing, calls for tighter restrictions on their flexible boundaries have been made. TikTok has since released tougher parental controls to filter out inappropriate content and to ensure they can provide sufficient protection and security.[200]
In October 2019, TikTok removed about two dozen accounts that were responsible for postingISIL propaganda and execution videos on the app.[201][202] In Malaysia, TikTok is used by some users to engage in hate speech against race and religion especially mentioning the13 May incident after the2022 election. TikTok responded by taking down videos with content that violated their community guidelines.[203]
In March 2023,The Jewish Chronicle reported that TikTok still hosted videos that promoted theneo-Nazi propaganda filmEuropa: The Last Battle, despite having been alerted to the issue four months prior. TikTok said it removed and would continue to remove the content and associated accounts and has blocked the search term as well.[204] In July 2024, theInstitute for Strategic Dialogue reported that an organized neo-Nazi TikTok network promoting neo-Nazi propaganda, includingEuropa: The Last Battle, was receiving millions of views.[205] In September 2024,Sky News reported that clips ofAdolf Hitler's speeches with added music were attracting high levels of engagement on TikTok. Although they were removed by TikTok after the report, mixing audio remains an effective way to evade content moderation on many platforms.[206]
Graphic content
In June 2021, TikTok made an apology after ashock video, showing a girl dancing which then cuts to a graphic scene of a man being beheaded by a saw, went viral. The video has now been sent to TikTok's blacklist, which automatically detects it before being uploaded.[207] TikTok has previously worked to remove graphic content from its platform, including the suicide video that was circulating in September 2020, which had appeared within the recommended clips of TikTok's For You section.[208][209]
TikTok has bannedHolocaust denial, but other conspiracy theories have become popular on the platform, such asPizzagate andQAnon (two conspiracy theories popular among the U.S.alt-right) whose hashtags reached almost 80 million views and 50 million views respectively by June 2020.[210] The platform has also been used to spread misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic, such as clips fromPlandemic.[210] TikTok removed some of these videos and has generally added links to accurate COVID-19 information on videos with tags related to the pandemic.[211]
In January 2020, left-leaning media watchdogMedia Matters for America said that TikTok hostedmisinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic despite a recent policy against misinformation.[212] In April 2020, the government of India asked TikTok to remove users posting misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic.[213] There were also multiple conspiracy theories that the government is involved with the spread of the pandemic.[214] It reported that in the second half of 2020, over 340,000 videos in the U.S. about election misinformation and 50,000 videos of COVID-19 misinformation were removed.[215]
To combat misinformation in the 2022 midterm election in the US, TikTok announced a midterms Elections Center available in-app to users in 40 different languages. TikTok partnered with theNational Association of Secretaries of State to give accurate local information to users.[216] In September 2022,NewsGuard Technologies reported that among the TikTok searches it had conducted and analyzed from the U.S., 19.4% surfaced misinformation such as questionable or harmful content aboutCOVID-19 vaccines, homemade remedies, the2020 U.S. elections, theRussian invasion of Ukraine, theRobb Elementary School shooting, and abortion. NewsGuard suggested that in contrast, results fromGoogle were of higher quality.[217]Mashable's own test from Australia found innocuous results after searching for "getting my COVID vaccine" but suggestions such as "climate change is a myth" after typing in "climate change".[215]
In November 2023, Singaporean Law and Home Affairs MinisterK. Shanmugam applied for court orders requiring TikTok to provide information on the identity of three users that he accuses of spreading false and defamatory information about him. The users had shared on TikTok an article published by celebscritic.com alleging that K. Shanmugam was involved in an extra-marital affair.[218]
As of 2022, TikTok is the 10th most popular app in Russia.[219] After a new set ofRussian war censorship laws was installed in March 2022, the company announced a series of restrictions on Russian and non-Russian posts and livestreams.[220][221]Tracking Exposed, a user data rights group, learned of what was likely a technical glitch that became exploited by pro-Russia posters. It stated that although this and other loopholes were patched by TikTok before the end of March, the initial failure to correctly implement the restrictions, in addition to the effects from Kremlin's "fake news" laws, contributed to the formation of a "splInternet ... dominated by pro-war content" in Russia.[222][219] TikTok said that it had removed 204 accounts for swaying public opinion about the war while obscuring their origins and that its fact checkers had removed 41,191 videos for violating its misinformation policies.[223][224]
In December 2023,BBC News reported that it had discovered nearly 800 fake TikTok accounts promoting Russian propaganda and disinformation. TikTok's own investigation found more than 12,000 fake accounts, including ones using additional languages such as English and Italian.[225]
In September 2024, TikTok removed the accounts of Russian state media outletsRT andSputnik.[226]
Feminism
The growth of popularity and access to TikTok has contributed to a growth in popularity ofdigital feminist movements and discourse originating from the platform.[227][228] Digital spaces like TikTok enable marginalized communities and activists, such as feminists, to feel safer and have an easier place to engage in discussion and dialogue or build an identity which might otherwise be impossible due to circumstances.[229] The momentum of digital feminist movements through platforms like TikTok have additionally encouraged many social media agents and marketing campaigns around the world to adopt some degree of feminism as a part of their online image or personal brand.[230] TikTok's unique platform organization, of spontaneous peer-peer information sharing, has enabled its utilization for community-engaged, digital knowledge mobilization and exchange between social justice communities.[231] However inversely enabled by the platform's organic potential, both feminist challenges and anti-feminist reinforcement of dominant social, hierarchical, and gender values are widespread and instigated through TikTok, and content labeled as anti-feminist is itself popularized on TikTok.[227]
TikTok tends to appeal to younger users, as 41% of its users are between the ages of 16 and 24. As of 2021[update], these individuals are consideredGeneration Z.[93] Among these TikTok users, 90% said they used the app daily.[232] TikTok's geographical use in 2019 has shown that 43% of new users were from India before the social platform was banned in the country.[233] But adults have also seen growth on TikTok. The share of U.S. adults who regularly get news from TikTok hit 14% in 2023.[234]
By July 2023, TikTok has become the primary news source for British teenagers on social media, with 28% of 12 to 15-year-olds relying on the platform, while traditional sources likeBBC One/Two are more trusted at 82%, according to a report by UK regulator Ofcom.[235] As of the first quarter of 2022, there were over 100 million monthly active users in the United States and 23 million in the UK. The average user, daily, was spending 1 hour and 25 minutes on the app and opening TikTok 17 times.[236] Out of TikTok's top 100 male creators, a 2022 analysis reported 67% were white, with 54% having near-perfectfacial symmetry.[237]
Teenage mode
China heavily regulates how Douyin is used by minors in the country, especially after 2018.[238] Under government pressure, ByteDance introduced parental controls and a "teenage mode" that shows only whitelisted content, such as knowledge sharing, and bans pranks, superstition, dance clubs, and pro-LGBT content.[a][184] A mandatory screen time limit was put in place for users under the age of 14 and a requirement to link accounts to a real identity to prevent minors from lying about their age or using an adult's account. The differences between Douyin and TikTok have led some U.S. politicians and commentators to accuse the company or the Chinese government of malicious intent.[238][239] In March 2023, TikTok announced default screen time limits for users under the age of 18. Those under the age of 13 would need a passcode from their parents to extend their time.[238]
Underage users
As with other platforms popular with children, underage users may inadvertently reveal their daily routine and whereabouts, raising concerns of potential misuse bysexual predators.[240][241] At the time of reporting (2018), TikTok had only two privacy settings, either private or completely public, without any middle ground.[242] Comment sections of "sexy" videos, such as young girls dancing in revealing clothes, were found to contain requests for nude pictures. TikTok itself forbids direct messaging of videos and photos, which meant follow-up interactions, if any, would have to take place in some other form.[243][244] In recent years, the U.S. has charged and sentenced sexual predators for illegal activities on TikTok against underage girls.[245][246][247][248]
On 22 January 2021, the Italian Data Protection Authority demanded that TikTok temporarily suspend Italian users whose age could not be established.[249] The order came after the death of a 10-year-old Sicilian girl involved in an Internet challenge. TikTok asked its users in Italy to confirm again that they were over 13 years old. By May, over 500,000 accounts had been removed for failing the age check.[250]
In July 2021, the Dutch Data Protection Authority fined TikTok €750,000 for offering privacy statements only in English but not in Dutch. It noted that TikTok had implemented positive measures, such as forbidding direct messaging for users younger than 16 and allowing their parents to manage privacy settings directly through a paired family account, but the risk of children pretending to be older when creating their account remains.[251][252] TikTok raised the minimum age for livestreaming from 16 to 18 after a BBC News investigation found hundreds of accounts going live from Syrian refugee camps. Thirty of them showed children begging for digital donation. TikTok reportedly made as much as a 70% commission on some of them, a figure that the company disputed.[253]
In March 2024, theItalian Competition Authority fined TikTok €10 million for not protecting underage users adequately from harmful content such as the "French scar" challenge, which left heavy pinch marks on a person's cheeks.[254] On December 30, 2024, Venezuela's Supreme Court fined TikTok $10 million over viral challenges that authorities say led to the deaths of three children. The court cited TikTok's negligence in failing to implement "necessary and adequate measures" to prevent the viral video challenges.[255][256]
TikTok has provided a platform for users to create content not only for fun but also for money. As the platform has grown significantly over the past few years, it has allowed companies to advertise and rapidly reach their intended demographic throughinfluencer marketing.[257] The platform's algorithm also contributes to the influencer marketing potential, as it picks out content according to the user's preference.[258] Sponsored content is not as prevalent on the platform as it is on other social media apps, but brands andinfluencers still can make as much as they would if not more in comparison to other platforms.[258] Influencers on the platform who earn money through engagement, such as likes and comments, are referred to as "meme machines".[257]
In 2021,The New York Times reported that viral TikTok videos by young people relating the emotional impact of books on them, tagged with the label "BookTok", significantly drove sales of literature. Publishers were increasingly using the platform as a venue for influencer marketing.[259]
In December 2022, NBC News reported in a television segment that some TikTok and YouTube influencers were being given free and discounted cosmetic surgeries in order for them to advertise the surgeries to users of the platforms.[260] In 2022, it was reported that a trend called "de-influencing" had become popular on the platform as a backlash to influencer marketing. TikTok creators participating in this trend made videos criticizing products promoted by influencers and asked their audiences not to buy products they did not need. However, some creators participating in the trend started promoting alternative products to their audiences and earning commission from sales made through theiraffiliate links in the same manner as the influencers they were originally criticizing.[261][262]
In June 2022,NBC News reported that some of the influencers paid byFeetFinder, a website that sellsfoot fetish content, did not disclose their videos were ads. FeetFinder said that it has suggested to influencers to be upfront about who was funding them. Existing sellers on FeetFinder said that the videos often misrepresented how "easy" it is to make money from posting feet pictures. Other TikTok creators have spoken out against accepting sponsorship deals indiscriminately and criticized those who posted undisclosed FeetFinder ads.[263]
Businesses
In October 2020, the e-commerce platformShopify added TikTok to its portfolio of social media platforms, allowing online merchants to sell their products directly to consumers on TikTok.[264] Somesmall businesses have used TikTok to advertise and to reach an audience wider than the geographical region they would normally serve. The viral response to many small business TikTok videos has been attributed to TikTok's algorithm, which shows content that viewers at large are drawn to, but which they are unlikely to actively search for (such as videos on unconventional types of businesses, likebeekeeping andlogging).[265]
In 2020, digital media companies such asGroup Nine Media andGlobal used TikTok increasingly, focusing on tactics such as brokering partnerships with TikTok influencers and developing branded content campaigns.[266] Notable collaborations between larger brands and top TikTok influencers have includedChipotle's partnership withDavid Dobrik in May 2019[267] andDunkin' Donuts' partnership withCharli D'Amelio in September 2020.[268]
Sex workers
TikTok is regularly used by sex workers to promote pornographic content sold on platforms such asOnlyFans.[269] One porn actor posted a viral song referring to himself as an "accountant", starting a trend.[270] In 2020, TikTok updated their terms of service to ban content that promotes "premium sexual content", impacting a large number of adult content creators.[271] In response, they began substituting words in their captions and videos and using filters to censor explicit images.[272][273] Some adult content creators have found a way to game TikTok's recommendation algorithm by posting riddles, attracting a large number of viewers that struggled to solve them. This increased potentialWeb traffic linked to the riddle posters' accounts on OnlyFans.[274]
Political
TheIsraeli Defense Force actively recruitsinfluencers on TikTok and other social media platforms.[275][276] In 2021 the IDF awarded a TikTokker who was one of its military police officers for promoting Israel. She had more followers than the IDF spokesperson or the prime minister.[277]
Since 2021, TikTok has created "election centres" on its platform leading up toEuropean Parliament elections. About 30% of EP lawmakers use TikTok to get their messages across and to dispel misinformation.[278]
Privacy concerns have been brought up regarding the app.[290][291] TikTok's privacy policy lists that the app collects usage information,IP addresses, a user'smobile carrier,unique device identifiers,keystroke patterns, andlocation data, among other data.[292] Other information collected includes users inferred interests based on the content they view as well as content created by users.[24] TikTok can share data with its corporate group, including ByteDance. The company says that it employs access control and approval process overseen by a U.S.-based team.[24] In June 2021, TikTok updated its privacy policy to include potential collection ofbiometric data, including "faceprints and voiceprints", for special effects and other purposes. The terms said that user authorization would be requested if local law demands such.[293] Experts considered them to be "vague" and their implications "problematic" for the United States due to the country's general lack of robust data privacy laws.[294] In a November 2022 update to its European privacy policy, TikTok stated that its global corporate group employees from China and other countries could gain remote access to the user information of accounts from Europe based on "demonstrated need".[295]
A March 2021 study by theCitizen Lab found that TikTok did not collect data beyond the industry norms, what its policy stated, or without additional user permission.[187] In May 2023,The Wall Street Journal reported that former employees complained about TikTok tracking users who had viewed LGBT-related content. The company said its algorithm tracks interests not identity, and non-LGBT users also view such content.[296]
Potential data collection by the Chinese government
Concerns have been raised about the potential control and influence of the Chinese government over TikTok's owner, ByteDance,[297] in particular theextraterritorial implications of China's 2017National Intelligence Law.[298][299] An article in the law insists that all organizations and citizens shall "support, assist and cooperate with national intelligence efforts."[300][301] Analysts differ in their assessments of the data collection risks.Jim Lewis of theCenter for Strategic and International Studies said TikTok would have no right to appeal requests for data made by the Chinese government.[24] Some cybersecurity experts say individual users are not at risk.[302] The United States has not offered any evidence of TikTok sharing such information with Chinese authorities.[303] Keeping user data within the United States became the motivation behind TikTok's Project Texas.[24]
Access from China and United States response
In October 2021, following the2021 Facebook leak and controversies about social media ethics, a bipartisan group of United States lawmakers also pressed TikTok, YouTube, and Snapchat on questions of data privacy and moderation for age-appropriate content. Lawmakers also "hammered" TikTok about whether consumer data could be turned over to the Chinese government through ByteDance, its parent company in China.[304] TikTok said it does not give information to China's government and "U.S. user data" is stored within the country with backups in Singapore.[305]
In June 2022,BuzzFeed News reported that leaked audio recordings of internal TikTok meetings reveal employees in China had access to overseas data, including a "master admin" who could see "everything". Some of the recordings were made during consultations withBooz Allen Hamilton, a U.S. government contractor. A spokesperson of the contractor said some of the report's information was inaccurate but would neither confirm nor deny whether TikTok was one of its clients.[306] As a consequence, the Senate Intelligence Committee including U.S. lawmakersMark Warner andMarco Rubio called for theFederal Communications Commission (FCC) to investigate ByteDance and whether TikTok had misled them.[307][308] Following the reports, TikTok confirmed that employees in China could have access to U.S. data.[309] It also announced that U.S. user traffic would now be routed throughOracle Cloud and that backup copies would be deleted from other servers.[310]
In June 2022, FCC CommissionerBrendan Carr called for Google and Apple to remove TikTok from their app stores, saying sensitive data were being accessed from Beijing[311][312] and ByteDance would be "required by law to comply with [Chinese government] surveillance demands."[311] In November 2022,Christopher A. Wray, director of theFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), said the Chinese government could use TikTok forinfluence operations on its users.[313] In May 2023, a former ByteDance employee filed a wrongful termination lawsuit alleging that Hong Kong users' device information and communications, particularly those of demonstrators in the2019–2020 Hong Kong protests, were accessed byChinese Communist Party members in 2018.[314][315][316] ByteDance denied the claims, saying the employee worked on a defunct project and that TikTok was pulled out of Hong Kong in 2020.[315] The whistleblower claimed in a sworn court statement that his father inmainland China had been detained by the authorities in retaliation for his speaking to the media about alleged censorship by TikTok.[317]
In June 2023, TikTok confirmed that some financial information, such as tax forms andSocial Security numbers, of American content creators are stored in China. This applies to those signing contracts with and receiving payment transactions from ByteDance. Whether similar information will remain exempt from being treated as "protected user data" is being negotiated with Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS).[318] A 2024 unclassified threat assessment by theDirector of National Intelligence said "TikTok accounts run by a [Chinese] propaganda arm reportedly targeted candidates" during the2022 United States elections.[319]
In April 2024, it was discovered that former employee Zen Goziker—allegedly the source of various leaks about TikTok toThe Washington Post,Forbes, andBuzzfeed News—had made improbable claims. He has also spoken with law enforcement agencies and lawmakers hostile to TikTok. He has accused not only his former employer but also theAttorney General, the Director of National Intelligence, and theDepartment of Homeland Security for getting him fired.[320]
Project Texas
In response to security concerns of the United States government, TikTok has been working to silo privileged user data within the United States under oversight from the U.S. government or a third party such as Oracle.[321] Named Project Texas, the initiative focuses on unauthorized access, state influence, and software security. A new subsidiary, TikTok U.S. Data Security Inc. (USDS), was created to manage user data, software code, back-end systems, and content moderation. It would report to the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS), not ByteDance or TikTok, even for hiring practices. Oracle would review and spot check the data flows through USDS. It would also digitally sign software code, approve updates, and oversee content moderation and recommendation. Physical locations would be established so that Oracle and the U.S. government could conduct their own reviews.[322] The company has been engaged in confidential negotiations over the project with CFIUS since 2021 and submitted its proposal but received little response from the panel afterward.[323]
In March 2023, a former employee of the company said Project Texas did not go far enough and that a complete "re-engineering" would be needed. TikTok responded by saying that Project Texas already is a re-engineering of the app and that the former employee left in 2022 before the project specifications were finalized.[324] Other former employees had their own takes on the situation. A data scientist said U.S. user data were emailed to ByteDance workers in China to identify viewer interests. A manager recounted that there was a lot more separation on the technical side between TikTok and ByteDance by the time he left. Another said TikTok had to employ better data collection practices thanMeta orGoogle due to the scrutiny it received.[22]
Project Clover
TikTok has faced criticism for transferring European user data to servers in the United States. It is holding discussions with UK'sNational Cyber Security Centre about a "Project Clover" for storing European information locally. The company plans to build two data centers in Ireland and one more in Norway. A third party will oversee the cybersecurity policies, data flows, and personnel access independently of TikTok.[325][326][17]
Journalist spying scandal
In October 2022,Forbes reported that a team at ByteDance planned to surveil certain U.S. citizens for undisclosed reasons. TikTok said that the tracking method suggested by the report would not be feasible because precise GPS information is not collected by the platform.[327][328] In December 2022, ByteDance confirmed after internal investigation that the data of two journalists and their close contacts had been accessed by its employees from China and the United States. It was intended to uncover sources of leaks who might have met with the journalists fromForbes and theFinancial Times. The data included IP addresses, which can be used to approximate a user's location. ByteDance stated that it fired four employees in response.[329]
In January 2020,Check Point Research discovered avulnerability through which a hacker couldspoof TikTok's officialSMS messages and replace them with malicious links to gain access to user accounts. It was laterpatched by TikTok.[334] In August 2020,The Wall Street Journal reported that TikTok tracked Android user data, includingMAC addresses andIMEIs, with a tactic in violation of Google's policies.[335][336]
In August 2022, software engineer and security researcher Felix Krause found that in-app browsers from TikTok and other platforms containedcodes forkeylogger functionality but did not have the means to further investigate whether any data was tracked or recorded. TikTok said that the code is disabled.[337]
Regulatory actions
U.S. Federal Trade Commission
On 27 February 2019, the United StatesFederal Trade Commission (FTC) reached aconsent decree with ByteDance, fining it U.S.$5.7 million for collecting information from minors under the age of 13 in violation of theChildren's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA).[338] ByteDance responded by adding a kids-only mode to TikTok which blocks the upload of videos, the building of user profiles, direct messaging, and commenting on others' videos, while still allowing the viewing and recording of content.[339] In May 2020, an advocacy group filed a complaint with the FTC saying that TikTok had violated the terms of the February 2019 consent decree with the FTC, which sparked subsequent congressional calls for a renewed FTC investigation.[340][341][342] In March 2022, following aclass action lawsuit for violations of COPPA, TikTok settled for US$1.1 million.[343][344] In March 2024, it was reported that the FTC continues to investigate TikTok.[345] In August 2024, the FTC and U.S. Department of Justice filed a joint lawsuit alleging violations of the 2019 consent decree.[346]
Data Protection Commission (Europe)
In September 2021, the IrelandData Protection Commission (DPC) launched investigations into TikTok concerning the protection of minors' data and transfers of personal data to China.[347][348] The Irish DPC became the lead agency to handle such matters after TikTok established an office in the country, taking over investigations started by Dutch and Italian authorities.[349][251] In September 2023, the DPC fined TikTok €345 million for violations of theGeneral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) vis-à-vis the mishandling of children data.[350][351]
UK Information Commissioner's Office
In February 2019, the United Kingdom'sInformation Commissioner's Office (ICO) launched an investigation of TikTok following the fine ByteDance received from the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Speaking to a parliamentary committee, Information CommissionerElizabeth Denham said that the investigation focuses on the issues of private data collection, the kind of videos collected and shared by children online, as well as the platform's open messaging system which allows any adult to message any child. She noted that the company was potentially violating the GDPR which requires the company to provide different services and different protections for children.[352] In April 2023, the ICO imposed a £12.7 million fine on TikTok for misusing children's data.[353][354] In March 2025, the ICO opened another investigation into TikTok concerning its use of children's personal information to recommend content to them.[355]
Pending investigations
Texas
In February 2022,Texas Attorney GeneralKen Paxton initiated an investigation into TikTok for alleged violations of children's privacy and facilitation ofhuman trafficking.[356][357] Paxton claimed that theTexas Department of Public Safety gathered several pieces of content showing the attempted recruitment of teenagers to smuggle people or goods across theMexico–United States border. He claimed the evidence may prove the company's involvement in "human smuggling, sex trafficking and drug trafficking". The company claimed that no illegal activity of any kind is supported on the platform.[358]
In February 2023, thePrivacy Commissioner of Canada, along with its counterparts in Alberta, British Columbia, and Quebec, launched an investigation into TikTok's data collection practices.[360]
European Commission
In February 2024, theEuropean Commission launched an investigation into TikTok for potential violations of theDigital Services Act (DSA), involving content aiming at children and advertising transparency.[361] In April 2024, the European Commission opened a second investigation into TikTok to assess whether it broke EU law.[362] In October 2024, the European Commission requested additional information from TikTok relating to its algorithm and risks around elections, mental health, and protection of minors.[363] In December 2024, the European Commission announced an investigation into TikTok overaccusations of Russian interference in the 2024 Romanian presidential election.[364]
Vox noted in 2018 that bullies and trolls were relatively rare on TikTok compared to other platforms.[244] Nonetheless, several users have reportedcyberbullying via features such as Duet or React, which is used to interact with followers.[366] A trend making fun ofautism eventually created a huge backlash, even on the platform itself, and the company ended up removing the hashtag altogether.[367][368] Parents filming how their children reacted to people with disability, often in terror, led to criticisms ofableism.[369] In December 2019, following a report by German digital rights groupnetzpolitik.org, TikTok admitted that it had suppressed videos by disabled users as well as LGBTQ+ users in a purported temporary effort to limit cyberbullying.[370][181]
There are concerns that some users may find it hard to stop using TikTok.[371] Internal TikTok research has documented the addiction potential of the app.[372] In April 2018, an addiction-reduction feature was added to Douyin.[371] This encouraged users to take a break every 90 minutes.[371] Later in 2018, the feature was rolled out to the TikTok app. TikTok uses popularinfluencers to encourage viewers to stop using the app and take a break.[373]
Many were also concerned with the app affecting users'attention spans due to the short-form nature of the content. This is a concern as many of TikTok's audience are younger children, whose brains are still developing.[374] TikTok executives and representatives have noted and made aware to advertisers on the platform that users have poor attention spans. The company's survey reported that nearly 50% of social media users find it stressful to watch a video longer than a minute and a third of users watch videos at double speed. Their short attention spans posed a challenge for TikTok to pivot towards longer content formats.[236] TikTok has also received criticism for enabling children to purchase coins which they can send to other users.[375]
Daily hours of entertainment screen media (Social Medias) may displace healthy behaviors such as socializing face to face, chores, hobbies, homework, family meals time, exercise, and sufficient sleep. Insomnia is considered a strong mediator between screen media time and mental health symptoms which implies that engaging in screen time pushes out adequate sleep and leads to decreased mental health.[376]
In February 2022,The Wall Street Journal reported that "Mental-health professionals around the country are growing increasingly concerned about the effects on teen girls of posting sexualized TikTok videos."[377] In March 2022, a coalition of U.S. state attorneys general launched an investigation into TikTok's effect on children's mental health.[378] In June 2022, TikTok introduced the ability to set a maximum uninterrupted screen time allowance, after which the app blocks off the ability to navigate the feed. The block only lifts after the app is exited and left unused for a set period of time. Additionally, the app features a dashboard with statistics on how often the app is opened, how much time is spent browsing it and when the browsing occurs.[379]
Since 2021, it has been reported that accounts engaging with contents related to suicide, self-harm, or eating disorder were shown more similar videos. Some users were able to circumvent TikTok filters by writing in code or using unconventional spelling. The company has faced multiple lawsuits pertaining to wrongful deaths. TikTok said it is working to break up these "rabbit holes" of similar recommendations. U.S. searches for eating disorder receive a prompt that offers mental health resources.[380][381][382]
In 2021, the platform revealed that it will be introducing a feature that will prevent teenagers from receiving notifications past their bedtime. The company will no longer send push notifications after 9 pm to users aged between 13 and 15. For 16 to 17 year olds, notifications will not be sent after 10 pm.[383] In March 2023, TikTok announced default screen time limits for users under the age of 18.[384]The Wall Street Journal has reported that doctors experienced a surge in reported cases oftics, tied to an increasing number of TikTok videos from content creators withTourette syndrome. Doctors suggested that the cause may be a social one as users who consumed content showcasing various tics would sometimes develop tics of their own,[385] akin tomass psychogenic illness.[386][387]
In May 2024, theNebraska Attorney General filed a lawsuit against TikTok for allegedly harming minors' mental health through an algorithm designed to be cultivate compulsive behavior.[388] In October 2024, U.S. senatorsRichard Blumenthal andMarsha Blackburn requested that TikTok turn over "all documents and information" related to child safety disclosures that were uncovered byNPR andKentucky Public Radio.[389]
2022 medication shortage
In November 2022, Australia's medical regulatory agency, theTherapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) reported that there was a global shortage of the diabetes medication Ozempic. According to the TGA, the rise in demand was caused by an increase inoff-label prescription of the drug for weight loss purposes.[390] In December 2022, with the United States experiencing a shortage as well, it was reported that the huge increase in demand for the medicine was caused by a weight loss trend on TikTok, where videos about the drug exceeded 360 million views.[391][392][393]Wegovy, a drug that has been specifically approved for treating obesity, also became popular on the platform afterElon Musk credited it for helping him lose weight.[394][395]
Several former employees of the company have claimed of poor workplace conditions, including the start of the workweek on Sunday to cooperate withChinese timezones and excessive workload. Employees claimed they averaged 85 hours of meetings per week and would frequentlystay up all night in order to complete tasks. Some employees claimed the workplace's schedule operated similarly to the996 schedule. The company has a stated policy of working from 10 AM to 7 PM five days per week (63 hours per week), but employees noted that it was encouraged for employees to work after hours. One female worker complained that the company did not allow her adequate time to change herfeminine hygiene product because of back-to-back meetings. Another employee noted that working at the company caused her to seekmarriage therapy and lose an unhealthy amount of weight.[396] In response to the allegations, the company noted that they were committed to allowing employees "support and flexibility".[397][398]
In September 2023, two former ByteDance employees filed a formal complaint with theU.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) asking the EEOC to investigate TikTok's practice of retaliation against workers who complain aboutdiscrimination.[399]
With reports that Palestinians resorted to TikTok for promoting their cause after platforms like Facebook andTwitter blocked their content,[400] Israeli analystYoni Ben-Menachem called the app a "tool of dangerous influence" inciting violence against Israelis.[401][402] According toYnet, the Palestinian militant groupLion's Den gained much of their popularity through TikTok.[403] In February 2023,Otzma Yehudit politicianAlmog Cohen advocated blocking TikTok for all ofEast Jerusalem.[404] U.S. lawmakerswanting to ban TikTok accused the platform of pushing pro-Hamas and pro-Palestine content.[405][406]
TikTok said that a significant proportion of its userbase comes from non-US regions such as theMiddle East andSoutheast Asia and that hashtags should not becherry-picked due to differences in the number of views per post and the age of a post or tag. The popularity of pro-Palestine content has also been explained by the app's younger user base, which has shifted its sympathy away fromIsrael towards thePalestinians.[405][406]
TheJewish Federations of North America expressed support for TikTok to be banned, while Israel's critics denounced the "criminalisation of pro-Palestinian voices," including on TikTok, which has been used to condemn "Israel'satrocities", according toThe New Arab.[409] TikTok was also accused by Malaysia's minister of communications,Fahmi Fadzil of suppressing pro-Palestinian content. The company stated it banned praising Hamas and removed more than 775,000 videos and 14,000 livestreams.[410][411]
In November 2023, Osama bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to the American people" went viral on TikTok and other social media. In the letter, he denounced the U.S. and its support for Israel, and supportedal-Qaeda's war against the U.S. as a defensive struggle. Numerous social media users, including Americans, expressed their opposition to U.S. foreign policy by sharing the resurfaced copies of the letter and its contents.The Guardian website removed the letter after displaying it for more than 20 years, and TikTok began issuing takedowns of videos featuring the letter.[412] Reporting inThe Washington Post suggested that the virality of the letter had been limited prior to media coverage, having never trended on TikTok. Many of the TikTok videos covering the letter were critical of bin Laden, and media coverage had exaggerated its significance while elevating the virality of the letter.[413]
Child exploitation in Kenya
An investigation in 2025 found that TikTok was profiting from sexual livestreams inKenya involving minors, with teenagers as young as 15 using the platform to solicit explicit content. Women in Kenya reported earning money through TikTok Lives, where codedsexual slang and emoji gifts facilitated transactions, with explicit content often delivered via other platforms. TikTok takes a 70% cut of these livestream earnings and has been aware ofchild exploitation since at least 2022. Many moderators say the company's content policies are ineffective, anddigital pimps exploit underage users on the large. Despite government concerns, Kenya lacks adequate moderation, and TikTok denies any sort of wrongdoing.[414]
On 21 December 2024, Albanian Prime MinisterEdi Rama announced that the Albanian government will shut down TikTok in 2025 for at least a year, following a deadly incident in November 2024 in which a teenager fatally stabbed another teen after a dispute that began on the platform.[415][416][417] On 7 March 2025, the shutdown was officially enacted after theAlbanian Cabinet cited concerns over the app's role in promoting violence and bullying among children.[418]
Canada
On November 6, 2024, Canada ordered TikTok to shut down its offices and subsidiary company (TikTok Technology Canada, Inc.) in the country due to national security concerns, but access to the app was not banned.[419][420] Users will still be able to access the video app and upload content to it.[419][420]
In January 2020, the United States Army and Navy banned TikTok on government devices after theDefense Department labeled it a security risk. Recruiters had been using the app to help fill quotas, and some continue to maintain a level of engagement through their personal accounts.[424][425][426]
According to a 2020 article inThe New York Times,Central Intelligence Agency analysts determined that while it is possible the Chinese government could obtain user information from the app, there was no evidence it had done so.[427]
Federal level
On 6 August 2020, U.S. PresidentDonald Trump signed an order[428][429] which would ban TikTok transactions in 45 days if it was not sold by ByteDance.[430][431] On 14 August 2020, Trump issued another order[432] giving ByteDance 90 days to sell or spin off its U.S. TikTok business.[433] In the order, Trump said that there is "credible evidence" that leads him to believe that ByteDance "might take action that threatens to impair the national security of the United States".[434]
On 13 March 2024, theUnited States House of Representatives passedH.R. 7521, which would ban TikTok completely unless it is divested from ByteDance.[438] In April, the House of Representatives included a modified version of the bill in a foreign aid package which was passed by theSenate on 23 April 2024, and signed the next day by Biden.[439][440][441] The law was challenged inTikTok, Inc. v. Garland but upheld by the courts as constitutional, while many users signed up for an "alternative" Chinese appXiaohongshu, known internationally as REDnote.[442] On 18 January 2025, hours before the bill went into effect, TikTok became unavailable across the country.[443][444] The next day, TikTok restored access to their service after re-elected U.S. PresidentDonald Trump assured TikTok he would not enforce the law.[445][60] President Donald Trump signed an executive order on 20 January 2025, delaying the enforcement of the TikTok ban by 75 days.[446][447]
State level
As of February 2023, at least 32 (of 50) states have announced or enacted bans on state government agencies, employees, and contractors using TikTok on government-issued devices. State bans only affect government employees and do not prohibit civilians from having or using the app on their personal devices.[448][449]
Observations
Critics say the United States itself surveils individuals abroad via tech companies underFISA laws.[450] Data collected by TikTok and other social networks can already be purchased through other means.[450][451] Some theorize that, if passed, H.R. 7521 could "embolden authoritarian censorship" of American Internet companies and affect U.S. interests, reputation, and online speech.[452] They have also labeled a potential ban on the app an assault onfreedom of speech, including Republican congressmenRand Paul andThomas Massie.[453][454]
Observers have argued that the national security concerns raised are largely hypothetical.[455][456][457] There is insufficient public evidence to show that American user data has been accessed by or shared with the PRC government,[458][459][460] with some claims reportedly exaggerated.[461] Biden himself was on TikTok as the president, while Trump has reversed his previous position.[462] According to computer security specialistBruce Schneier, which company owns TikTok may not matter, asRussia had interfered in the 2016 US elections usingFacebook without owning it.[463]
In June 2023,The New Zealand Herald reported that TikTok, working in cooperation with both New Zealand and Australian police, deleted 340 accounts and 2,000 videos associated with criminal gangs including theMongrel Mob,Black Power,Killer Beez, theComancheros,Mongols, andRebels. TikTok had earlier drawn criticism for hosting content by organized crime groups promoting the gang lifestyle and fights. A TikTok spokesperson reiterated the platform's efforts to countering "violent" and "hateful" organizations' content and cooperating with police.New Zealand Police CommissionerAndrew Coster praised the platform for taking a "socially-responsible stance" against gangs.[466]
TikTok has partnered with theHispanic Heritage Foundation to support smallLatino businesses, setting aside $5000 each for 40 grant recipients based onentrepreneurship.[467] After digital advertising rules for the Olympics were relaxed, TikTok andTeam GB signed a sponsorship deal to help UK athletes connect with new audiences for the2024 Summer Olympics.[468]
Starting in 2021, TikTok became the primary sponsor/partner of theEnglish Football League clubWrexham A.F.C. located inWrexham,Wales. A large version of the TikTok logo was emblazoned on the front of the player's red coloured home and away uniforms below the Wrexham A.F.C. crest as well as on shirts sold by Wrexham's brick and mortar and virtual fan stores, the partnership ended in 2023 when Wrexham was promoted to theEFL League Two after which U.S. airlineUnited took over the partnership/sponsorship.[469][470]
^Miltsov, Alex (2022). "Researching TikTok: Themes, Methods, and Future Directions".The SAGE Handbook of Social Media Research Methods. SAGE Publications Ltd. pp. 664–676.doi:10.4135/9781529782943.n46.ISBN9781529720969.Even though TikTok is only a few years old, it has already been shaping the ways millions of people interact online and engage in artistic, cultural, social, and political activities.
^Novet, Jordan (13 September 2020)."Oracle stock surges after it confirms deal with TikTok-owner ByteDance". CNBC.Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved2 October 2020.Shares of Oracle surged Monday morning after it confirmed it has been chosen to serve as TikTok owner ByteDance's "trusted technology provider" in the U.S.
^Mueller, Miller; Farhat, Karim."TikTok and US national security"(PDF). Internet Governance Project.Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved11 July 2023.
^Faddoul, Marc; Romano, Salvatore; Rama, Ilir; Kerby, Natalie; Giorgi, Giulia (13 April 2022)."Content Restrictions on TikTok in Russia following the Ukrainian War"(PDF). Tracking Exposed.Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved26 November 2022.cannot be solely attributed to TikTok's content restriction policies. The 'fake news' law ... is likely to have also increased the level of self-censorship ... likely to be a technical glitch ... these loopholes and tried to patch them
^Ryu, Jenna (5 December 2022)."Young people are documenting, recording their plastic surgery on TikTok. Here's why that's a bad thing".USA Today.Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved31 December 2022.However, "#FillerNation" also exposes a lesser-known reality: Many of these influencers said they received thousands of dollars worth of cosmetic surgeries for free, or at a discounted price, to market to their audiences – without having to publicly disclose the transaction.
^Hadero, Haleluya; Swenson, Ali (15 February 2023)."TikTok 'de-influencers' want Gen Z to buy less – and more".Stuff.Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved26 February 2023.And there might be money to be made in that as well. For example, some products mentioned in popular TikToker user alyssastephanie's de-influencing videos are listed on her Amazon Storefront, a personalised page on the e-commerce site where influencers earn commission from purchases made using affiliate links.
^Dickson, E. J. (17 December 2020)."OnlyFans Creators and Sex Workers Are Getting 'Purged' from TikTok".Rolling Stone.Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved7 March 2023.According to the new guidelines, users are forbidden from posting, streaming, or sharing nude or sexually explicit content as well as 'content that depicts, promotes, or glorifies sexual solicitation, including offering or asking for sexual partners, sexual chats or imagery, sexual services, premium sexual content, or sexcamming.'
^Sung, Morgan (11 November 2022)."Some OnlyFans creators have found a loophole to put their nudes on TikTok". NBC News.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved7 March 2023.Instead of referring to explicit photos as "nudes," for example, TikTok users will write out the word as "n00ds" or "spicy pics." Sex workers typically refer to themselves as "accountants" and refer to their content as "corn" instead of porn.
^Mueller, Milton; Farhat, Karim."TikTok and US national security"(PDF).Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Public Policy, Internet Governance Project.Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved16 March 2024.
^Milmo, Dan (8 November 2022)."TikTok's ties to China: why concerns over your data are here to stay".The Guardian.Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved25 November 2023....considerable doubt is generated by China's National Intelligence Law of 2017, which states that all organisations and citizens shall "support, assist and cooperate" with national intelligence efforts.
^Shepardson, David (15 November 2022)."U.S. FBI director says TikTok poses national security concerns".Reuters.Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved15 November 2022.Risks include "the possibility that the Chinese government could use [TikTok] to control data collection on millions of users or control the recommendation algorithm, which could be used for influence operations," Wray told U.S. lawmakers.
^"Former ByteDance executive says Chinese Communist Party tracked Hong Kong protesters via data".Associated Press. 7 June 2023.Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved17 December 2023.For the Hong Kong users, Yu said in the filing that he saw the logs that showed the committee accessed the user data of protesters, civil rights activists and their supporters, including users who had been identified from prior protests. The filing also said the committee monitored Hong Kong users who uploaded protest-related content on TikTok.
^Sisco, Josh (26 March 2024)."TikTok's troubles just got worse: The FTC could sue them, too".Politico. Retrieved27 March 2024.The FTC is weighing whether to bring some combination of a new case against TikTok under the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act, or COPPA, as well as claims that the company violated the earlier settlement.
^"US pro-Israel Jewish group backs ban on 'antisemitic' TikTok".The New Arab. 13 March 2024.Critics say supporters of Israel are weaponising antisemitism to defend Israel's war on Gaza and the criminalisation of pro-Palestinian voices, including on social media. TikTok has been an important tool for activists and users to expose the genocide in Gaza and condemn Israel's atrocities.
^abHale, Erin."US says China can spy with TikTok. It spies on world with Google". Al Jazeera.Archived from the original on 13 September 2023. Retrieved22 May 2023.They did not mention how the US government itself uses US tech companies that effectively control the global internet to spy on everyone else ... giving agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) practically free rein to snoop on their communications. I'm sure there's some use they could make of that information, German said. But why wouldn't they just buy it on the open market like the American government does?
^Chin, Caitlin (6 October 2022)."U.S. Digital Privacy Troubles Do Not Start or End with TikTok".Center for Strategic and International Studies.Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved10 September 2023.In recent years, government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Special Operations Command, Internal Revenue Service, and Defense Intelligence Agency have reportedly purchased massive amounts of U.S. mobile app geolocation information from data brokers—without warrants or proper oversight. Furthermore, U.S. private companies, such as Clearview AI, Palantir, and Giant Oak have collectively scanned billions of social media posts—which could include TikTok content.
^"House approves sell-or-be-banned TikTok measure, attaching it to foreign aid bill".Wisconsin Public Radio.Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved27 April 2024.Those concerns remain largely hypothetical. TikTok is owned by Chinese tech giant ByteDance, yet there is no publicly available evidence that government officials have ever influenced what Americans see on the app, nor any proof that officials in China have spied on U.S. citizens through TikTok.
^Fung, Brian (12 March 2024)."TikTok creators fear a ban as the House prepares to vote on a bill that could block the app in America".CNN.Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved14 March 2024.Cybersecurity experts say that the national security concerns surrounding TikTok remain a hypothetical—albeit concerning—scenario. US officials have not publicly presented evidence that the Chinese government has accessed the user data of US TikTok users. ... a strain of fear and racism, echoing many other Asian-Americans who have looked on with growing alarm. Creators interviewed by CNN say they have not personally viewed any content on TikTok that could be described as Chinese propaganda, however. Multiple creators say the House bill ... would almost certainly disrupt the organic communities they've built.
^Warzel, Charlie (24 April 2024)."Welcome to the TikTok Meltdown".The Atlantic.Some of the evidence may also be of dubious provenance—as Wired reported recently, a TikTok whistleblower who claims to have spoken with numerous politicians about a potential ban may have overstated his role at the company and offered numerous improbable claims about its inner workings.
^Klippenstein, Ken (16 March 2024)."TikTok Threat Is Purely Hypothetical, U.S. Intelligence Admits".The Intercept.Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved22 April 2024.The problem with TikTok isn't related to their ownership. In 2016 Russia did this with Facebook and they didn't have to own Facebook—they just bought ads like everybody else. Trump signed a covert action order authorizing the CIA to use social media to influence and manipulate domestic Chinese public opinion and views on China.
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