TheCatholic Church (Chinese:天主教;pinyin:Tiānzhǔ jiào;lit. 'Religion of the Lord of Heaven', after the Chinese term for the Christian God) first appeared in China upon the arrival ofJohn of Montecorvino inChina proper during theYuan dynasty; he was the first Catholic missionary in the country, and would become the first bishop ofKhanbaliq (1271–1368).[1]
The JesuitMatteo Ricci was successful in Catholic missionary work in China. His approach viewed certain Confucian and Chinese folk practices as non-religious in nature and therefore compatible with Catholic practice. Other missionaries objected to this approach and after the hundred year longChinese Rites controversy, the Vatican ordered the Jesuits to abandon the culturally accommodating approach Ricci had developed.
After theChinese Communist Party (CCP) won theChinese Civil War, Catholic and Protestant missionaries were expelled from the country. In 1957, the CCP established theChinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) in Beijing,[2] which rejects the authority of theHoly See and appoints its own preferential bishops. In September 2018, China and the Holy See reached a provisional agreement giving thePope the power to veto any bishop which theChinese government recommends. The parties have extended the provisional agreement twice, most recently in October 2024.
Terms used to refer to God inChinese differ even among Christians.
Arriving in China during theTang dynasty, the earliest Christian missionaries from theChurch of the East referred to their religion asJǐngjiào (景教, literally, "bright teaching"). Originally, some Catholic missionaries and scholars advanced the use ofShàngdì (上帝, literally, "The Emperor from Above"), as being more native to the Chinese language. Other Catholic missionaries coined theneologismTiānzhǔ (天主, literally, "Lord of Heaven") which became the dominant usage.[3]: 61 Within the Catholic Church, the term 'gōngjiào' (公教, literally "universal teaching") is not uncommon, this being also the original meaning of the word "catholic". When Protestants arrived in China in the 19th century, they favoredShangdi overTianzhu. Many Protestants useShén (神), which generically means "god" or "spirit"[3]: 61 (although Catholic priests are calledshénfù (神父, literally "spiritual father")), orYēhéhuá (耶和華, a transliteration ofJehovah). Meanwhile, theMandarin Chinese translation ofJesus, used by all Christians, isJīdū (基督).
The modern Chinese language generally divides Christians into two groups: adherents of Catholicism,Tiānzhǔjiào (天主教), and adherents of Protestantism,Jīdūjiào (基督教) orJīdū Xīnjiào (基督新教—"New Religion"). Chinese speakers see Catholicism and Protestantism as distinct religions. Thus, in Western languages, the term "Christianity" can subsume both Catholics and Protestants (i.e., Christians as opposed to, for example, Hindus or Jews). In Chinese, however, there is not a commonly used term that can subsume the two (but today in Chinese Catholic literature, the term "Jīdū zōngjiào" (基督宗教) is used to signify all Christian sects, as the term in Chinese means "religion of Christ").Eastern Orthodoxy is calledDōngzhèngjiào (東正教), which is simply a literal translation of "Eastern Orthodox Religion" into Chinese.
The Catholic Church first entered China during the cosmopolitanTang dynasty era,[4] although it had few native Chinese followers until the16th century in the Ming dynasty.[5]
A series of reports about the Far East reached the Catholic West in the mid thirteenth century.
Missionarypriests of theLatinCatholic Church inEurope are recorded to have entered China in the late 13th century, with the earliest beingFranciscans.[10] The ItalianFranciscan priestJohn of Montecorvino arrived in the new capitalKhanbaliq (modern-dayBeijing) in 1294. In 1299 he built a church and in 1305 a second opposite the imperial palace. Having made a study of the local language, he began to translate theNew Testament and thePsalms. Estimates of converts range from 6,000 to 30,000 by the year 1300.
In 1307Pope Clement V sent seven Franciscan bishops to consecrate John of Montecorvino as Archbishop of Peking. The three who survived the journey did so in 1308 and succeeded each other as bishops atZaiton, where John had established. In 1312 three more Franciscan bishops arrived fromRome to aid John until his death in 1328. He convertedArmenians in China andAlans in Beijing to Catholicism. Armenians inQuanzhou were also Franciscan Catholics. The FranciscanOdoric of Pordenone visited China during this era.Katarina Vilioni's Catholic tombstone was found in Yangzhou.[11]
The mission had some success during the rule of theMongol-ledYuan dynasty, but various factors led to an ultimate shrinking of the mission.[12] Six centuries later, however, John of Montecorvino's attempt at the translation of the Bible became the inspiration for another Franciscan, the BlessedGabriele Allegra, to go to China and in 1968 complete the first translation of the Catholic Bible into the Chinese language, after a 40-year personal effort.
In 1338, representatives of the Great Khan (Toghon Temür) arrived in Europe inviting the Pope to send priests for the local Christians. FriarJohn of Marignolli and between fifty and one hundred fellow Franciscans were dispatched, arriving in Khanbaliq (Beijing) in 1342. This mission stayed with government encouragment until the Mongols were overthrown in around 1368 and the antagonistic Ming dynasty was installed. The last reported Franciscan being stoned by Buddhist monks in 1400.[8]
During theCatholic Reformation's explosion of missionary efforts around the world, particularly in Asia,Jesuit and other Catholic missionaries attempted to enter China. They had mixed success at first, but eventually came to have a strong impact, particularly in inter-cultural scientific and artistic exchanges among the upper classes of China and the imperial court.
The permanent mission was established in 1601 by the efforts of the JesuitMatteo Ricci. His whole approach was quite subtle, interesting theWanli Emperor and theMing Chinese authorities in aspects of western technology and learning as a point of opening. He also made attempts to reconcile Christianity with the ClassicConfucian texts, though he was hostile, along with the other members of theSociety of Jesus, toTaoism andBuddhism. Ricci's approach to missionary work respected Chinese culture, deeming certain Confucian and folk practices to be civil rather than religious in nature and therefore not inconsistent with Catholic practice.[13]: 185
Ricci died in 1610 but the Jesuit mission went on to become an important part of theImperial civil service right into the 18th century. In 1644 a German Jesuit,Adam Schall von Bell, was appointed Director of the Board of Astronomy by the newQing dynasty. Jesuits were also given posts as mechanics, musicians, painters, instrument makers, and in other areas that required technical expertise. Likewise, the development of Catholic Christianity in China originated an interesting process of cultural and artistic hybridization during early globalization and up to the present. An example of this is the Christian works of art made in the cloisonné technique.[14]
Within 60 years after Ricci's death, the number of Catholics in China had grown to 300,000.[13]: 185
In the Qing dynasty, the Jesuits' pragmatic accommodation with Confucianism was later to lead to conflict with theDominican friars, who came to Beijing from thePhilippines in the middle of the century. Dominican leaderDomingo Fernández Navarrete in responding to the question "WasConfucius saved?" said that since Greek philosophers such asSocrates,Plato,Aristotle,Seneca, and others were all damned "how much the more Confucius, who was not worthy to kiss their feet"? In responding,António de Gouveia, a Portuguese Jesuit, said that Confucius was certainly saved, "which is more than can be said for KingPhilip IV of Spain."[15]
While up to this point there had been debate among Western clergy as to whether to ordain Chinese men as priests, the debate was settled in 1654 whenLuo Wenzao (also known as Gregory Lopez) was ordained a priest for the Dominican Order.[16]
After theRites controversy of the late 17th century and early 18th century ended in the expulsion of missionaries from most of China, access to the people of China was difficult for the Catholic Church. The controversy revolved around the reluctance of the Church to recognize local Confucian customs of honouring deceased family members. To the Chinese, this was an ancient ritual; to theVatican it was a religious exercise which conflicted withCatholicdogma. Some missionaries objected to the legacy of what they viewed as Matteo Ricci's concessions to superstitious practices.[13]: 185 The Vatican ultimately sided with these missionaries and ordered the Jesuits to abandon Ricci's cultural approach.[13]: 185 Due to the Rites controversy, theKangxi Emperor required missionaries to declare their adherence to "the rules of Matteo Ricci" which tolerated the Chinese rites. In 1724, theYongzheng Emperor expelled all missionaries who failed to support Ricci's position on accommodation.[17]
Under the "fundamental laws" of China, one section is titled "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited." TheJiaqing Emperor in 1814 added a sixth clause in this section with reference to Christianity. It was modified in 1821 and printed in 1826 by theDaoguang Emperor. It sentenced Europeans to death for spreading Catholic Christianity amongHan Chinese andManchus (Manchurian people, originally from North China). Christians who would not repent their conversion were sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang, to be given as slaves to Muslim leaders andBaigs.[18] Manchu Christians would also be removed from their Banner registers after being given as slaves to the Baigs.[19][20][21]
The clause stated: "People of the Western Ocean, (Europeans or Portuguese,) should they propagate in the country the religion of heaven's Lord, (in Chinese: 天主教， the Chinese name of the Catholic Church) or clandestinely print books, or collect congregations to be preached to, and thereby deceive many people, or should any Tartars or Chinese, in their turn, propagate the doctrines and clandestinely give names, (as in baptism,) inflaming and misleading many, if proved by authentic testimony, the head or leader shall be sentenced to immediate death by strangulations: he who propagates the religion, inflaming and deceiving the people, if the number be not large, and no names be given, shall be sentenced to strangulation after a period of imprisonment. Those who are merely hearers or followers of the doctrine, if they will not repent and recant, shall be transported to the Mohammedan cities (in Turkistan) and given to be slaves to the Baigs and other powerful Mohammedans who are able to coerce them. (...) All civil and military officers who may fail to detect Europeans clandestinely residing in the country within their jurisdiction, and propagating their religion, thereby deceiving the multitude, shall be delivered over to the Supreme Board and be subjected to a court of inquiry."[citation needed]
Some hoped that the Chinese government would discriminate between Protestantism and Catholicism, since the law was directed at Catholicism, but after Protestant missionaries in 1835–6 gave Christian books to Chinese, the Daoguang Emperor demanded to know who were the "traitorous natives in Canton who had supplied them with books." The foreign missionaries were strangled or expelled by the Chinese.[22]
Following the British Empire's defeat of China in theFirst Opium War (1839–1841), China was required to permit foreign missionaries.[23]: 182 Theunequal treaties gave European powers jurisdiction over missions and some authority over Chinese Christians.[23]: 182 France sought to frame itself as the protector of Catholics in China, which in turn led to a sustained diplomatic disputewith the Holy See about who had authority over Chinese Catholics.[23]: 182
It was at this period of the Qing dynasty when one of history's bloodiest civil wars took place; led by the Christianized leaderHong Xiuquan of theTaiping Rebellion, that claimed upwards of 20-milion lives.[24][25][26]
During theBoxer Rebellion (1899–1901), Catholic missionaries and their families were murdered by Boxer rebels.[27]
The Qing dynasty imperial government permitted French Catholic Christian missionaries to enter and proselytize in Tibetan lands, which weakened the control of the Tibetan Buddhist Lamas, who refused to give allegiance to the Chinese. The Tibetan Lamas were alarmed and jealous of Catholic missionaries converting natives to Catholicism. During the1905 Tibetan Rebellion the Tibetan BuddhistGelug Yellow Hat sect led a Tibetan revolt. The Lamas massacred Christian missionaries and native converts to Christianity and besieged Bat'ang, burning down the mission chapel and killing two foreign missionaries, Père Mussot and Père Soulié. The ChineseAmban'sYamen was surrounded and Chinese GeneralWu Yi-chung was shot dead in the Yamen by Lama forces. The Chinese Amban Feng and Commandant in Chief Li Chia-jui managed to escape by scatteringrupees behind them, which the Tibetans proceeded to pick up. The Ambans reached Commandant Lo's place, but the 100 Tibetan troops serving under the Amban, armed with modern weaponry, mutinied when news of the revolt reached them. The Tibetan Lamas and their Tibetan followers besieged the Chinese Commandant Lo's palace along with local Christian converts. In the palace they killed all Christian converts, both Chinese and Tibetan.[28]
After the1911 Revolution, which led to the founding of the Republic of China (ROC), reform-minded priests such asVincent Lebbe and prominent Catholic laymen such asMa Xiangbo andYing Lianzhi protested toPope Benedict XV that the French who made up 70% of clergy and controlled the Chinese Church were chauvinist and disdainful of China. Chinese priests were discriminated against and many left the clergy, as Ma Xiangbo himself had done. Benedict directed the establishment of theCatholic University of Peking, which opened in 1925.[29]
In 1917, the ROC and the Holy See agreed in principle to establish a diplomatic relationship.[23]: 182 France, which had framed itself as the protector of Catholics in China since the unequal treaties and had a long-standing dispute with the Holy See as a result, blocked these diplomatic efforts.[23]: 182 As a result, Vatican interests in China were represented by anApostolic Delegate (which does not have formal diplomatic status) until the 1940s.[23]: 182
The Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress in Canton endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement in China, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism." Protests and riots linked to the Nationalists frequently occurred, sometimes with Nationalist troops participating. Several mission properties were destroyed or looted. However, since the Kuomintang leaders, many being Christians themselves, held back from starting an actual conflict with the Christian churches, although they encouraged the propaganda against the churches. Hence, Chiang Kai-shek attempted to reassure missionaries they would not be targeted, although attacks against missions continued.[30]
After the Japan succeeded in itsinvasion of Manchuria and its 1932 establishment of itsManchukuo puppet state, the Vatican retained its presence in the occupied region.[23]: 182–183 This initially resulted in tension between the ROC and Vatican, but the Vatican ultimately satisfied the ROC that it needed to maintain its presence in the occupied region for the benefit of Catholics there and that the Vatican's presence did not imply an acceptance of the Manchukuo state.[23]: 182–183
Within months of his election,Pope Pius XII issued a further change in policies. On 8 December 1939, theSacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith issued—at the request of Pope Pius—a new instruction, by which Chinese customs were no longer consideredsuperstitious, but instead an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted by the Catholic Church.[31]
Theinternuncio Antonio Riberi arrived in China in 1942.[23]: 182 The government of the Republic of China establisheddiplomatic relations with the Vatican in 1943. As the Church began to flourish,[32] Pope Pius established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy and elevated theArchbishop of Peking,Thomas Tien Ken-sin,SVD, to theSacred College of Cardinals.[33] AfterWorld War II, about four million Chinese were members of the Catholic Church. This was less than one percent of the population but numbers increased dramatically. In 1949, there existed:
During theChinese Civil War,Pope Pius XII forbade Chinese Catholics from joining the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) or participating in its activities.[23]: 183
In summer of 1949, CCP forces captured theNationalist capital,Nanjing.[23]: 183 The Nationalist government retreated toGuangzhou.[23]: 183 Although most of the diplomatic corps in Nanjing also went to Guangzhou, the papal ambassador (theinternuncio) remained in Nanjing.[23]: 183 Pius XII instructed all Chinese bishops to remain in place.[23]: 183 Veteran religious personnel were also encouraged to remain in place butseminarians were encouraged to leave and continue their studies in environments deemed more politically stable.[13]: 35
In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organizations would result inexcommunication from the Church.[35]: 33 In response, initiatives including Fr. Wang Liangzuo's "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation" gained support from Chinese Catholics.[35]: 33 In turn, apostolic nuncioAntonio Riberi circulated a letter denouncing such proposed reforms, and in March 1951 Fr. Li Weiguang and a group of 783 priests, nuns, and lay Catholics signed a declaration opposing what they viewed as Vatican interference and Western imperialism.[35]: 33 Chinese authorities arrested Riberi on allegations of colluding withAmerican intelligence and false accusations of participating in a plot to killChairman of the Chinese Communist PartyMao Zedong.[23]: 184 Under police guard, Riberi was deported toBritish Hong Kong.[23]: 184
China broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1951.[35]: 33 The CCP framed these actions in terms of Chinese Catholics reclaiming their church in the context of broader opposition to Western imperialism.[35]: 33
In the 1950s, Shanghai was the major site of Catholic opposition to China's religious policies.[13]: 22
Foreign missionaries were accused of being foreign agents, ready to turn the country over to imperialist forces.[36] The Holy See reacted with severalencyclicals andapostolic letters, includingCupimus Imprimis,Ad Apostolorum principis, andAd Sinarum gentem.
In 1955, the Chinese government arrested dozens of Catholic clerics and laity in Shanghai (most notably BishopIgnatius Kung Pinmei)[37] and prosecuted them as the "Kung Pinmei counterrevolutionary clique" for activities the government deemed counterrevolutionary.[13]: 53, 122–23
The Catholic Church in China developed into two communities.[23]: 184 The "Patriotic" Church operates with approval of Chinese authorities and the"Underground" Church which professes loyalty to the pope.[23]: 184 "Underground" does not mean the underground church is secret (in contemporary China, the community mostly operates openly) but refers to its lack of official approval and lack of official support.[23]: 185
Since then Catholicism, like all religions, was permitted to operate only under the supervision of theState Administration for Religious Affairs, a state body that was merged into theUnited Front Work Department of theCentral Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 2018.[38] All legal worship was to be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to theChinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA), which did not accept theprimacy of the Roman Pontiff. In addition to overseeing the practice of the Catholic faith, the CCPA espoused politically oriented objectives as well.Liu Bainian, chairman of the CCPA and theBishops Conference of the Catholic Church in China (BCCCC), stated in a 2011 interview that the church needed individuals who "love the country and love religion: politically, they should respect the Constitution, respect the law, and fervently love the socialist motherland."[39]
Some Catholics who recognized the authority of the Holy See chose to worship clandestinely due to the risk of harassment from authorities. Several underground Catholic bishops were reported as disappeared or imprisoned, and harassment of unregistered bishops and priests was common.[40] There were reports of Catholic bishops and priests being forced by authorities to attend the ordination ceremonies for bishops who had not gained Vatican approval.[39] Chinese authorities also had reportedly pressured Catholics to break communion with the Vatican by requiring them to renounce an essential belief in Catholicism, theprimacy of the Roman Pontiff. In the past, however, authorities have permitted some Vatican-loyal churches to carry out operations.[40]
In 1978, the Vatican'sCongregation for the Evangelization of Peoples issued a document to be circulated in China which granted special privileges and faculties to Catholics there.[13]: 29–32 It circulated as a booklet written in both Latin and Chinese, titled theFaculties and Privileges Granted to Clergy and Catholics Living in Mainland China in These Grave Circumstances (the Chinese text did not include the phrase, "in these grave circumstances").[13]: 29 To address a lack of priests and bishops whom the Vatican deemed legitimate, the document relaxed various requirements regarding the administration of thesacraments, theordination of priests, and how priests could perform their duties.[13]: 30–31 Some powers typically reserved for bishops were devolved to priests in the absence of a bishop.[13]: 32 The document also stated that fasting, abstinence, and Sabbath rest were to be observed only if possible and stated that Catholics could marry non-Catholics if the non-Catholic spouse promised to raise children in the religion.[13]: 32 It states that these special privileges are only for Catholics in "all the territory of China" and that prudence should be taken in implementing them, with bishops consulted where available.[13]: 32 From the Vatican perspective, the document was framed in terms of pastoral care.[13]: 32 It does not explicitly refer to church-state conflicts or China-Holy See relations.[13]: 33
In the 1980s,north China was the major site of Catholic opposition to China's religious policies, in part because of the efforts of Bishop Joseph Fan Xueyan, who ordained numerous priests and consecrated at least seven bishops in the underground church.[13]: 22
While Article 36 ofChina's Constitution (adopted in 1982) provides for "freedom of religious belief" and non-discrimination on religious bases, it also states that "[n]o one shall use religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the state's education system" and "[r]eligious groups and religious affairs shall not be subject to control by foreign forces."[41]
In 1982, the patriotic church opened its first seminary of the reform era atSheshan, withAloysius Jin Luxian as itsrector.[13]: 130
Following a 1988 meeting of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, the Vatican circulated a document authored by CardinalJozef Tomko to Catholic bishops worldwide to discuss the Vatican's view of the Church's situation in China.[13]: 235–236 It noted that after the CCPA began nominating bishops, the Church in China developed into a state-official church focused on the autonomous process for appointing bishops and the underground church which kept "hierarchical belonging to the Roman Pontiff".[13]: 235 The document states that there are also clergy in the state official church advocating an intermediate approach.[13]: 236 It describes that the bishops consecrated after 1958 were "gravely illicit" but valid.[13]: 237 Therefore, the Vatican's judgment on the status of these bishops would need to be determined on a case-by-case basis.[13]: 237 Priests ordained by these bishops could validly administer the sacraments.[13]: 237 The document also said Catholics could go to priests not in communion with the Vatican, although doing so was not preferable.[13]: 237 It stated that when clergy of China's official church went abroad, clergy in full communion with the Vatican should not worship with them.[13]: 236
Although intended to be confidential, the 1988 document was leaked to the press and became public.[13]: 238 The Chinese government addressed the 1988 Vatican document in an internal circular which described the document as an effort to support "underground Catholic forces in carrying out anti-government, anti-autonomous Catholic Church activities."[13]: 238
In 1989, a group of underground bishops informed the Vatican of their intent to institute their own bishops' conference for China.[13]: 263 Cardinal Jozef Tomko sent a letter to thechargé d'affaires of theapostolic nunciature on Taiwan, asking that he inform the underground bishops that "while understanding the no doubt just reasons driving the interested parties to formulate to proposals" ... "for now it is not opportune that they be implemented."[13]: 263–264 The underground bishops met as a conference without Vatican approval.[13]: 264 Within a few months, almost all the meeting attendees were arrested.[13]: 264
Catholic masses were typically held in Latin prior to 1992, when the state approved widespread mass in the vernacular.[13]: 261 Among the proponents of bringing the liturgy of the patriotic church into line with post-Vatican II reforms was Aloysius Jin Luxian.[13]: 261
A recurring issue in the bilateral relationship is the procedure for appointingCatholicbishops in mainland China.[23]: 180 This is the most important issue in the bilateral relationship from the perspective of the Vatican.[23]: 191 Since the 1950s, theChinese government's position is that bishops in China should be elected by Chinese Catholics through the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA).[23]: 180 The CCPA's position is that the election of bishops by the church is consistent with ancient church practice.[13]: 144 The CCPA is part of theunited front system.[23]: 180 Through this process, the CCP has ultimate control over the appointment of Bishops.[23]: 180 The Vatican's position is that the appointment of bishops is the prerogative of the Pope.[23]: 180 By the terms of thecanon law of the Catholic Church, the Chinese bishops and people who actively participate in theirordination would be automaticallyexcommunicated, a result calledlatae sententiae.[23]: 184 The Vatican has never announced any such excommunications.[23]: 184 Instead, the Vatican describes the ordination of the Chinese bishops asvalid but illicit.[23]: 184 This means that in the Vatican's view, the Chinese bishops are in fact bishops, but the process through which they are appointed is sinful.[23]: 184 In 2018, the Chinese government and the Holy See reached a provisional agreement on the appointment of bishops.[23]: 180 The provisional agreement was renewed in 2022 and 2024.
Some, including Hong Kong CardinalJoseph Zen, saw the progress betweenVietnam and Vatican officials towards re-establishing full diplomacy as a model for Sino-Vatican normalization of relations.[42] By late 2004, prior to the death of Pope John Paul II, Vatican and Chinese government representatives were in contact with the apparent goal of moving closer to the normalization of relations.[43] In late 2004, John Paul II received a "quasi-official" Chinese delegation in the Vatican.
In a further sign of rapprochement between the Vatican and Beijing,Pope Benedict XVI invited four Chinese bishops, including two government recognized bishops, one underground bishop, and one underground bishop recently emerged into the official church, to the October 2005 Synod on the Eucharist.[44]
By 2007, the Vatican had indicated on multiple occasions that it desired to establish full diplomatic relations with China, and would be willing to move its embassy fromTaiwan tomainland China if necessary.[42]
In May 2007,Pope Benedict XVI wrote an open letter to all Chinese Catholics, stating that there is one Catholic Church in China and that despite the two communities (i.e. the "Patriotic" Church and the "Underground" Church) there is noschism between them.[23]: 185 Benedict XVI stated that sacraments performed by the priests not in unity with the Vatican were valid but also illicit.[23]: 185 He stated that the Catholic Church accepts the legitimacy of the civil authorities in secular matters and that the Pope has authority in ecclesial matters, and therefore the involvement of the CCPA in the appointment of bishops (and its bishops' conference) violated Catholic doctrine.[23]: 185 The letter also removed the permission granted by the Vatican in 1978 to the Underground church to appoint bishops without Vatican approval.[23]: 185 Benedict XVI wrote that the large majority of bishops in China had been reconciled with the Vatican.[13]: 277
Underground bishop Joseph Wei Jingyi ofQiqihar released a two-page pastoral letter in July 2007, asking his congregation to study and act on the letter of Pope Benedict XVI and naming the letter a "new milestone in the development of the Chinese Church."[45] In September 2007, a coadjutor bishop for theGuiyang Diocese was jointly appointed by the Vatican and the Chinese official Catholic church.[46]
On 22 September 2018, the Holy See and China signed a two-year "Provisional Agreement between the Holy See and the People's Republic of China on the appointment of Bishops", which was initially set to expire on 22 October 2020.[47][48] According to the communiqué released by theHoly See Press Office, the Provisional Agreement aimed to create "conditions for great collaboration at the bilateral level."[49] This was the first time that an agreement of cooperation has been jointly signed by the Holy See and China. The exact terms of the Provisional Agreement have not been publicly released but people who are familiar with the agreement stated that it allowed for the Holy See to review bishop candidates recommended by the government-sanctioned Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) prior to appointment and consecration.[50] The Provisional Agreement granted veto power to the Holy See when reviewing the bishop nominees that the CCPA has put forward.Anthony Yao Shun, bishop ofJining, was the first bishop appointed under the framework of the Provisional Agreement.[51]Pope Francis readmitted seven bishops appointed by the government withoutPontifical mandate to full ecclesial communion in addition to the new appointments.[52]
While the agreement is viewed by the Holy See as an opportunity to increase their presence in China, many thought that it diminished the Holy See's authority over the local church because it shared decision-making powers with an authoritarian government.Cardinal Joseph Zen, former archbishop of Hong Kong, strongly opposed the deal, stating that the agreement is an incredible betrayal of the Catholics in China.[53] As a response to the criticism, Pope Francis wrote a message to the Catholics of China and to the Universal Church on 26 September 2018 to provide context on how to view the Provisional Agreement.[54] Pope Francis recognized that the Provisional Agreement is experimental in nature and will not resolve other conflicts between the Holy See and China, but it will allow for both parties to "act more positively for the orderly and harmonious growth of the Catholic community in China."[55] China, on its part, also positively views the agreement, stating that it is willing to "further enhance understanding with the Vatican side and accumulate mutual trust, so that the momentum of active interaction between the two sides will continue to move forward."[56] Despite strong opposition from theUnited States and conservative Catholics, the Holy See and China extended the Provisional Agreement.[57]
In November 2020, a month after the Provisional Agreement was extended, China released the revised "Administrative Measures for Religious Clergy." The enforcement of the new rules took effect on 1 May 2021. The Administrative Measures prioritize theSinicization of all religion. Religious professionals are obligated to carry out their duties within the scope provided by the laws, regulations and rules of the government.[58] The new rules do not consider the collaborative process set in place by the Provisional Agreement between the Holy See and China when appointing bishops. In Article XVI of the Administrative Measures, Catholic bishops are to be approved and consecrated by the government-sanctionedChinese Catholic Bishops Conference. The document does not state that collaboration and approval from the Holy See to appoint bishops is required, going against the terms of the Provisional Agreement. Just a month before the release of the new rules, Foreign Ministry SpokespersonZhao Lijian had stated that China is willing to work together with the Vatican "to maintain close communication and consultation and advance the improvement of bilateral ties"[59] through the Provisional Agreement.
In a communiqué released by the Holy See on 22 October 2020,[60] the Holy See and China entered into anote verbale agreement to extend the Provisional Agreement for an additional two years, remaining in effect until 22 October 2022.[61] In July 2022, Pope Francis stated that he hoped the Provisional Agreement would be renewed, describing the agreement as "moving well."[62] As of July 2022, six new bishops had been appointed under the agreement.[62]
According to Catholic charityAid to the Church in Need, at least 20 priests were under arrest at some point in 2023, some of whom had been missing for several years.[63]
In October 2024, the provisional agreement was renewed for another four years.[64][65]
The number of Catholics is hard to estimate because of the large number of Christians who do not affiliate with either of the two state-approved denominations.[66][40]
Estimates in 2020 suggested that Catholics make up 0.69% of the population.[67]
The 2010 Blue Book of Religions, produced by the Institute of World Religions at theChinese Academy of Social Sciences, a research institution directly under theState Council, estimated Catholics in China to number about 5.7 million.[68] This Chinese government estimate only included members of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA). It did not include un-baptized persons attending Christian groups, non-adult children of Christian believers or other persons under age 18, and unregistered Christian groups.[66]
The Holy Spirit Study Centre in Hong Kong, which monitors the number of Chinese Catholic members, estimated in 2012 that there were 12 million Catholics in both branches of the Catholic Church.[69][70]: 38
In 2017Hebei Province had the largest Catholic Christian population in China, with 1 million Church members according to the local government.[71] Generally, Catholic institutions were dominant in North and Central regions of China.[66]
The Catholic Church is allowed to operate freely inMacau andHong Kong. Notably,John Lee Ka-chiu, the currentchief executive of Hong Kong, and two former chief executives,Donald Tsang andCarrie Lam, are Catholic. However,Pope John Paul II was denied a visit (which was deemed "inappropriate") to Hong Kong in 1999, by then chief executiveTung Chee Hwa, who was in office from 1997 to 2005, a decision many believe was made under pressure from the central PRC government. The two territories are organized into theDiocese of Hong Kong and theDiocese of Macau.
mohammedan slaves to beys.
foreigners strangled or expelled.(Original from the New York Public Library)
Through Liang's text, Hong was finally able to interpret his dream. He determined that his golden-bearded father was none other than God, and his older brother was Jesus. He had needed to change his name because the syllable "Huo" was used in the Chinese transliteration of God's name, which should not be spoken aloud. Hong had a mission: to rid China of demon worship, which he interpreted to mean Buddhism and Confucianism.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)Please see individual articles for specific works.
