Narratives featuring Thor are most prominently attested in Old Norse, where Thor appears throughoutNorse mythology. In stories recorded in medievalIceland, Thor bears at leastfifteen names, is the husband of the golden-haired goddessSif and the lover of thejötunnJárnsaxa. WithSif, Thor fathered the goddess (and possiblevalkyrie)Þrúðr; withJárnsaxa, he fatheredMagni; with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fatheredMóði, and he is the stepfather of the godUllr. Thor is the son ofOdin andJörð,[1] by way of his father Odin, he hasnumerous brothers, includingBaldr. Thor has two servants,Þjálfi andRöskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats,Tanngrisnir andTanngnjóstr (whom he eats and resurrects), and is ascribed three dwellings (Bilskirnir,Þrúðheimr, andÞrúðvangr). Thor wields the hammerMjölnir, wears the beltMegingjörð and the iron glovesJárngreipr, and owns the staffGríðarvölr. Thor's exploits, including his relentless slaughter of his foes and fierce battles with the monstrous serpentJörmungandr—and their foretold mutual deaths during the events ofRagnarök—are recorded throughout sources for Norse mythology.
Into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in folklore throughoutGermanic-speaking Europe. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the weekThursday bears his name (modern EnglishThursday derives from Old Englishthunresdaeġ, 'Thunor's day'), and names stemming from the pagan period containing his own continue to be used today, particularly in Scandinavia. Thor has inspired numerous works of art and references to Thor appear in modern popular culture. Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Thor is revived in the modern period inHeathenry.
Name
The nameThor is derived from Norse mythology. Its medieval Germanic equivalents or cognates areDonar (Old High German),Þunor (Old English),Thuner (Old Frisian),Thunar (Old Saxon), andÞórr (Old Norse),[2] the latter of which inspired the modern English formThor.[3]
Etymology
Though Old NorseÞórr has only one syllable, it comes from an earlierProto-Norse two-syllable form which can bereconstructed as *Þonarr (from an earlier *Þunaraz) and/or *Þunurr (from *Þunuraz), evidenced by the poemsHymiskviða andÞórsdrápa, and modernElfdaliantųosdag 'Thursday', through the common Old Norse development of the sequence-unr- to-ór-.[4]
All Germanic forms of Thor's name descend fromProto-Germanic, but there is debate as to precisely what form the name took at that early stage. The form*Þunuraz is suggested by Elfdaliantųosdag ('Thursday') and by arunic inscription from around 700 from Hallbjäns inSundre, Gotland, which includes the sequenceþunurþurus.[4]: 709–11 Alternatively, the form*Þunaraz is attractive because it is identical to the name of the ancient Celtic godTaranus (bymetathesis—switch of sounds—of an earlier*Tonaros, attested in the dativetanaro and theGaulish river nameTanarus).[5][6][4] Finally, the form*Þunraz has also been suggested by Hjalmar Lindroth (1917) and has the attraction of clearly containing the sequence-unr-, needed to explain the later formÞórr, although the similarity with Celtic theonym *Tonaros is lost.[4]: 708 According toJohn T. Koch, the form*Þunraz is from earlierpre-Germanic stage that predatesGrim's Law.[7]
These Proto-Germanic forms are probably further related to the commonProto-Indo-European root for 'thunder'*(s)tenh₂-, also attested in the Latin epithetTonans (attached toJupiter) and the Vedicstanáyati ("thunders").[8] Scholar Peter Jackson argues that those theonyms may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an originalepithet (orepiclesis, i.e.invocational name) of the Proto-Indo-European thunder-god*Perkwunos, since the Vedic weather-godParjanya is also calledstanayitnú- ('Thunderer').[9]
The potentially perfect match between the thunder-gods *Tonaros and *Þunaraz, which both go back to a common form *ton(a)ros ~ *tṇros, is notable in the context of early Celtic–Germanic linguistic contacts, especially when added to other inherited terms with thunder attributes, such as *Meldunjaz–*meldo- (from *meldh- 'lightning, hammer', i.e.*Perkwunos' weapon) and *Fergunja–*Fercunyā (from*perkwun-iyā 'wooded mountains', i.e. *Perkwunos' realm).[7]
Name of the weeks
The Englishweekday nameThursday comes from Old EnglishÞunresdæg, meaning 'day of Þunor', with influence from Old NorseÞórsdagr. The name iscognate with Old High GermanDonarestag. All of these terms derive from a Late Proto-Germanic weekday name along the lines of *Þunaresdagaz ('Day of*Þun(a)raz'), acalque of LatinIovis dies ('Day ofJove'; cf. modern Italiangiovedì, Frenchjeudi, Spanishjueves). By employing a practice known asinterpretatio germanica during theRoman period, ancient Germanic peoples adopted the Latin weekly calendar and replaced the names of Roman gods with their own.[10][11]
Personal names
Beginning in theViking Age,personal names containing thetheonymÞórr are recorded with great frequency, whereas no examples are known prior to this period.Þórr-based names may have flourished during the Viking Age as a defiant response to attempts at Christianization, similar to the widespread Viking Age practice of wearing Thor's hammer pendants.[12]
Historical attestations
Roman era
Altar stone for Hercules Magusanus from Bonn, dated 226 AD.[13]
The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans, and in these works Thor is frequently referred to—via a process known asinterpretatio romana (where characteristics perceived to be similar by Romans result in identification of a non-Roman god as a Roman deity)—as either the Roman godJupiter (also known asJove) or theGreco-RomangodHercules.
The first clear example of this occurs in the Roman historianTacitus's late first-century workGermania, where, writing about the religion of theSuebi (a confederation ofGermanic peoples), he comments that "among the gods Mercury is the one they principally worship. They regard it as a religious duty to offer to him, on fixed days, human as well as other sacrificial victims. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind" and adds that a portion of theSuebi also venerate "Isis".[14] In this instance, Tacitus refers to the godOdin as "Mercury", Thor as "Hercules", and the godTýr as "Mars", and the identity of theIsis of the Suebi has been debated. In Thor's case, the identification with the god Hercules is likely at least in part due to similarities between Thor's hammer and Hercules' club.[15] In hisAnnals, Tacitus again refers to the veneration of "Hercules" by the Germanic peoples; he records a wood beyond the riverWeser (in what is now northwesternGermany) as dedicated to him.[16] A deity known asHercules Magusanus was venerated inGermania Inferior; due to the Roman identification of Thor with Hercules,Rudolf Simek has suggested thatMagusanus was originally an epithet attached to theProto-Germanic deity *Þunraz.[17]
Boniface bears his crucifix after felling Thor's Oak inBonifacius (1905) byEmil Doepler
The first recorded instance of the name of the god appears upon theNordendorf fibulae, a piece of jewelry created during theMigration Period and found inBavaria. The item bears anElder Futhark inscribed with the nameÞonar (i.e.Donar), the southern Germanic form of Thor's name.[18]
Around the second half of the 8th century, Old English texts mentionThunor (Þunor), which likely refers to aSaxon version of the god. In relation,Thunor is sometimes used in Old English texts to glossJupiter, the god may be referenced in the poemSolomon and Saturn, where the thunder strikes the devil with a "fiery axe", and the Old English expressionþunorrād ("thunder ride") may refer to the god's thunderous, goat-led chariot.[19][20]
TheKentish royal legend, probably 11th-century, contains the story of a villainous reeve ofEcgberht of Kent called Thunor, who is swallowed up by the earth at a place from then on known asþunores hlæwe (Old English 'Thunor's mound').Gabriel Turville-Petre saw this as an invented origin for the placename demonstrating loss of memory that Thunor had been a god's name.[23]
In the 11th century, chroniclerAdam of Bremen records in hisGesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum that a statue of Thor, who Adam describes as "mightiest", sits in theTemple at Uppsala in the center of a triple throne (flanked byWoden and "Fricco") located inGamla Uppsala,Sweden. Adam details that "Thor, they reckon, rules the sky; he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility" and that "Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter". Adam details that the people ofUppsala had appointedpriests to each of the gods, and that the priests were to offer upsacrifices. In Thor's case, he continues, these sacrifices were done when plague or famine threatened.[24] Earlier in the same work, Adam relays that in 1030 an English preacher, Wulfred, waslynched by assembled Germanic pagans for "profaning" a representation of Thor.[25]
Two objects withrunic inscriptions invoking Thor date from the 11th century, one fromEngland and one from Sweden. The first, theCanterbury Charm fromCanterbury,England, calls upon Thor to heal a wound by banishing athurs.[26] The second, theKvinneby amulet, invokes protection by both Thor and his hammer.[27]
On four (or possibly five)runestones, an invocation to Thor appears that reads "May Thor hallow (theserunes/this monument)!" The invocation appears thrice in Denmark (DR 110,DR 209, andDR 220), and a single time inVästergötland (VG 150), Sweden. A fifth appearance may possibly occur on a runestone found inSödermanland, Sweden (Sö 140), but the reading is contested.[28]
Pictorial representations of Thor's hammer appear on a total of five runestones found in Denmark (DR 26 andDR 120) and in the Swedish counties ofVästergötland (VG 113) andSödermanland (Sö 86 andSö 111).[28] It is also seen on runestoneDR 48.[citation needed] The design is believed to be a heathen response to Christian runestones, which often have a cross at the centre. One of the stones,Sö 86, shows a face or mask above the hammer.Anders Hultgård has argued that this is the face of Thor.[29] At least three stones depict Thor fishing for the serpentJörmungandr: theHørdum stone inThy, Denmark, theAltuna Runestone inAltuna, Sweden and theGosforth Cross inGosforth, England.Sune Lindqvist argued in the 1930s that the image stoneArdre VIII onGotland depicts two scenes from the story: Thor ripping the head of Hymir's ox and Thor and Hymir in the boat,[30] but this has been disputed.[31]
Image gallery
TheSønder Kirkeby Runestone (DR 220), a runestone from Denmark bearing the "May Thor hallow these runes!" inscription
A runestone fromSödermanland, Sweden bearing a depiction of Thor's hammer
TheAltuna stone from Sweden, one of four stones depicting Thor's fishing trip
Closeup of Thor withMjölnir depicted on the Altuna stone.
In the 12th century, more than a century after Norway was "officially" Christianized, Thor was still being invoked by the population, as evidenced by a stick bearing a runic message found among theBryggen inscriptions inBergen,Norway. On the stick, both Thor and Odin are called upon for help; Thor is asked to "receive" the reader, and Odin to "own" them.[32]
The foretold death of Thor as depicted byLorenz Frølich (1895)Thor and the Midgard Serpent (byEmil Doepler, 1905)
In the poemVöluspá, a deadvölva recounts the history of the universe and foretells the future to the disguised god Odin, including the death of Thor. Thor, she foretells, will do battle with thegreat serpent during the immense mythic war waged atRagnarök, and there he will slay the monstrous snake, yet after he will only be able to take nine steps before succumbing to the venom of the beast:
Benjamin Thorpe translation: Then comes the mighty son ofHlôdyn: (Odin's son goes with the monster to fight); Midgârd'sVeor in his rage will slay the worm. Nine feet will goFiörgyn's son, bowed by the serpent, who feared no foe. All men will their homes forsake.[34]
Henry Adams Bellows translation: Hither there comes the son of Hlothyn, The bright snake gapes to heaven above; ... Against the serpent goes Othin's son. In anger smites the warder of earth,— Forth from their homes must all men flee;— Nine paces fares the son of Fjorgyn, And, slain by the serpent, fearless he sinks.[35]
Afterwards, says thevölva, the sky will turn black before fire engulfs the world, the stars will disappear, flames will dance before the sky, steam will rise, the world will be covered in water and then it will be raised again, green and fertile.[36]
Thor wades through a river while theÆsir ride across the bridgeBifröst, byFrølich (1895)
In the poemGrímnismál, the god Odin, in disguise asGrímnir, and tortured, starved and thirsty, imparts in the youngAgnar cosmological lore, including that Thor resides inÞrúðheimr, and that, every day, Thor wades through the riversKörmt andÖrmt, and the twoKerlaugar. There,Grímnir says, Thor sits as judge at the immense cosmological world tree,Yggdrasil.[37]
InSkírnismál, the godFreyr's messenger,Skírnir, threatens the fairGerðr, with whomFreyr is smitten, with numerous threats and curses, including that Thor,Freyr, and Odin will be angry with her, and that she risks their "potent wrath".[38]
Thor is the main character ofHárbarðsljóð, where, after traveling "from the east", he comes to an inlet where he encounters a ferryman who gives his name asHárbarðr (Odin, again in disguise), and attempts to hail a ride from him. The ferryman, shouting from the inlet, is immediately rude and obnoxious to Thor and refuses to ferry him. At first, Thor holds his tongue, butHárbarðr only becomes more aggressive, and the poem soon becomes aflyting match between Thor andHárbarðr, all the while revealing lore about the two, including Thor's killing of severaljötnar in "the east" and women onHlesey (now the Danish island ofLæsø). In the end, Thor ends up walking instead.[39]
Týr looks on as Thor discovers that one ofhis goats is lame, byFrølich (1895)
Thor is again the main character in the poemHymiskviða, where, after the gods have been hunting and have eaten their prey, they have an urge to drink. They "sh[ake] the twigs" and interpret what they say. The gods decide that they would find suitable cauldrons atÆgir's home. Thor arrives atÆgir's home and finds him to be cheerful, looks into his eyes, and tells him that he must prepare feasts for the gods. Annoyed,Ægir tells Thor that the gods must first bring to him a suitable cauldron to brew ale in. The gods search but find no such cauldron anywhere. However,Týr tells Thor that he may have a solution; east ofÉlivágar livesHymir, and he owns such a deep kettle.[40]
So, after Thor secures his goats atEgil's home, Thor andTýr go toHymir's hall in search of acauldron large enough to brewale for them all. They arrive, andTýr sees his nine-hundred-headed grandmother and his gold-clad mother, the latter of which welcomes them with a horn. AfterHymir—who is not happy to see Thor—comes in from the cold outdoors,Týr's mother helps them find a properly strong cauldron. Thor eats a big meal of two oxen (all the rest eat but one), and then goes to sleep. In the morning, he awakes and informsHymir that he wants to go fishing the following evening, and that he will catch plenty of food, but that he needs bait.Hymir tells him to go get some bait from his pasture, which he expects should not be a problem for Thor. Thor goes out, findsHymir's best ox, and rips its head off.[41]
After alacuna in the manuscript of the poem,Hymiskviða abruptly picks up again with Thor andHymir in a boat, out at sea.Hymir catches a fewwhales at once, and Thor baits his line with the head of the ox. Thor casts his line and the monstrous serpentJörmungandr bites. Thor pulls the serpent on board, and violently slams him in the head with his hammer.Jörmungandr shrieks, and a noisy commotion is heard from underwater before another lacuna appears in the manuscript.[42]
After the second lacuna,Hymir is sitting in the boat, unhappy and totally silent, as they row back to shore. On shore,Hymir suggests that Thor should help him carry a whale back to his farm. Thor picks both the boat and the whales up, and carries it all back toHymir's farm. After Thor successfully smashes a crystal goblet by throwing it atHymir's head onTýr's mother's suggestion, Thor andTýr are given the cauldron.Týr cannot lift it, but Thor manages to roll it, and so with it they leave. Some distance fromHymir's home, an army of many-headed beings led byHymir attacks the two, but are killed by the hammer of Thor. Although one ofhis goats is lame in the leg, the two manage to bring the cauldron back, have plenty of ale, and so, from then on, return toOld Norse:Týr,lit. 'Ægir''s for more every winter.[43]
Thor raises his hammer as Loki leavesÆgir's hall, byFrølich (1895)
In the poemLokasenna, the half-godLoki angrilyflites with the gods in the sea entityÆgir's hall. Thor does not attend the event, however, as he is away in the east for unspecified purposes. Towards the end of the poem, the flyting turns toSif, Thor's wife, whom Loki then claims to have slept with. The godFreyr's servantBeyla interjects, and says that, since all of the mountains are shaking, she thinks that Thor is on his way home.Beyla adds that Thor will bring peace to the quarrel, to which Loki responds with insults.[44]
Thor arrives and tells Loki to be silent, and threatens to rip Loki's head from his body with his hammer. Loki asks Thor why he is so angry, and comments that Thor will not be so daring to fight "the wolf" (Fenrir) when it eats Odin (a reference to the foretold events ofRagnarök). Thor again tells him to be silent, and threatens to throw him into the sky, where he will never be seen again. Loki says that Thor should not brag of his time in the east, as he once crouched in fear in the thumb of a glove (a story involving deception by the magic ofÚtgarða-Loki, recounted in theProse Edda bookGylfaginning)—which, he comments, "was hardly like Thor". Thor again tells him to be silent, threatening to break every bone in Loki's body. Loki responds that he intends to live a while yet, and again insults Thor with references to his encounter withÚtgarða-Loki. Thor responds with a fourth call to be silent, and threatens to send Loki toHel. At Thor's final threat, Loki gives in, commenting that only for Thor will he leave the hall, for "I know alone that you do strike", and the poem continues.[45]
Ah, what a lovely maid it is! (1902) byElmer Boyd Smith: Thor is unhappily dressed by the goddessFreyja and her attendants as herself
In the comedic poemÞrymskviða, Thor again plays a central role. In the poem, Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer,Mjölnir, is missing. Thor turns to Loki, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen. The two go to the dwelling of the goddessFreyja, and so that he may attempt to findMjölnir, Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak.Freyja agrees, and says she would lend it to Thor even if it were made of silver or gold, and Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling.[46]
InJötunheimr, thejötunnÞrymr sits on abarrow, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses.Þrymr sees Loki, and asks what could be amiss among theÆsir and theelves; why is Loki alone inJötunheimr? Loki responds that he has bad news for both the elves and theÆsir—that Thor's hammer,Mjölnir, is gone.Þrymr says that he has hiddenMjölnir eight leagues beneath the earth, from which it will be retrieved, but only ifFreyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling, away fromJötunheimr and back to the court of the gods.[47]
Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he is still in the air as "tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies." Loki states that it was indeed an effort, and also a success, for he has discovered thatÞrymr has the hammer, but that it cannot be retrieved unlessFreyja is brought toÞrymr as his wife. The two return toFreyja and tell her to put on a bridal head dress, as they will drive her toJötunheimr.Freyja, indignant and angry, goes into a rage, causing all of the halls of theÆsir to tremble in her anger, and her necklace, the famedBrísingamen, falls from her.Freyja pointedly refuses.[48]
As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold athing to discuss and debate the matter. At the thing, the godHeimdallr puts forth the suggestion that, in place ofFreyja, Thor should be dressed as the bride, complete with jewels, women's clothing down to his knees, a bridal head-dress, and the necklaceBrísingamen. Thor rejects the idea, yet Loki interjects that this will be the only way to get backMjölnir. Loki points out that, withoutMjölnir, thejötnar will be able to invade and settle inAsgard. The gods dress Thor as a bride, and Loki states that he will go with Thor as his maid, and that the two shall drive toJötunheimr together.[49]
After riding together in Thor'sgoat-driven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive inJötunheimr.Þrymr commands thejötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, forFreyja has arrived to be his wife.Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating thatFreyja was all that he was missing in his wealth.[50]
Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet withÞrymr and the assembledjötnar. Thor eats and drinks ferociously, consuming entire animals and three casks ofmead.Þrymr finds the behavior at odds with his impression ofFreyja, and Loki, sitting beforeÞrymr and appearing as a "very shrewd maid", makes the excuse that "Freyja's" behaviour is due to her having not consumed anything for eight entire days before arriving due to her eagerness to arrive.Þrymr then lifts "Freyja's" veil and wants to kiss "her". Terrifying eyes stare back at him, seemingly burning with fire. Loki says that this is because "Freyja" has not slept for eight nights in her eagerness.[50]
The "wretched sister" of thejötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from "Freyja", and thejötnar bring outMjölnir to "sanctify the bride", to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by "the hand" of the goddessVár. Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikesÞrymr, beats all of thejötnar, kills their "older sister", and so gets his hammer back.[51]
Sun Shines in the Hall (1908) byW.G. Collingwood: Thor clasps his daughter's hand and chuckles at the "all-wise"dwarf, whom he has outwitted
In the poemAlvíssmál, Thor tricks adwarf,Alvíss, to his doom upon finding that he seeks to wed his daughter (unnamed, possiblyÞrúðr). As the poem starts, Thor meets a dwarf who talks about getting married. Thor finds the dwarf repulsive and, apparently, realizes that the bride is his daughter. Thor comments that the wedding agreement was made among the gods while Thor was gone, and that the dwarf must seek his consent. To do so, Thor says,Alvíss must tell him what he wants to know aboutall of the worlds that the dwarf has visited. In a long question and answer session,Alvíss does exactly that; he describes natural features as they are known in the languages of various races of beings in the world, and gives an amount of cosmological lore.[52]
However, the question and answer session turns out to be a ploy by Thor, as, although Thor comments that he has truly never seen anyone with more wisdom in their breast, Thor has managed to delay the dwarf enough for the Sun to turn him to stone; "day dawns on you now, dwarf, now sun shines on the hall".[53]
In the poemHyndluljóð,Freyja offers to thejötunn womanHyndla toblót (sacrifice) to Thor so that she may be protected, and comments that Thor does not care much forjötunn women.[54]
Prose Edda,Heimskringla, and sagas
The prologue to theProse Eddaeuhemerises Thor as a prince ofTroy, and the son ofMenon by Troana, a daughter ofPriam. Thor, also known asTror, is said to have married the prophetessSibyl (identified withSif). Thor is further said here to have been raised inThrace by a chieftain namedLorikus, whom he later slew to assume the title of "King of Thrace", to have had a pale complexion and hair "fairer than gold", and to have been strong enough to lift ten bearskins.[55] In later sagas he is described as red-bearded,[56] but there is no evidence for a red beard in the Eddas.[57]
The name of theæsir is explained as "men fromAsia",Asgard being the "Asian city" (i.e., Troy). Alternatively, Troy is inTyrkland (Turkey, i.e., Asia Minor), andAsialand isScythia, where Thor founded a new city named Asgard. Odin is a remote descendant of Thor, removed by twelve generations, who led an expedition across Germany, Denmark and Sweden to Norway.
InHeimskringla, composed in the 13th century bySnorri Sturluson, Thor or statues of Thor are mentioned inYnglinga saga,Hákonar saga góða,Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar, andÓláfs saga helga. InYnglinga saga chapter 5, a heavily euhemerized account of the gods is provided, where Thor is described as having been agothi—a pagan priest—who was given by Odin (who himself is explained away as having been an exceedingly powerful magic-wielding chieftain from the east) a dwelling in the mythical location ofÞrúðvangr, in what is now Sweden. The saga narrative adds that numerous names—at the time of the narrative, popularly in use—were derived fromThor.[58]
Saint Olaf
Medieval depictions of Saint Olaf adopted features from Thor. This wooden statue is from Sankt Olofs kyrka inScania.
Around the 12th century, folk traditions and iconography of the Christianizing kingOlaf II of Norway (Saint Olaf; c. 995 – 1030) absorbed elements of both Thor and Freyr.[59] After Olaf's death, his cult had spread quickly all over Scandinavia, where many churches were dedicated to him, as well as to other parts of Northern Europe. His cult distinctively mixed both ecclesiastical and folk elements. From Thor, he inherited the quick temper, physical strength and merits as a giant-slayer. Early depictions portray Olaf as clean-shaven, but after 1200 he appears with a red beard.[60] For centuries, Olaf figured in folk traditions as a slayer oftrolls and giants, and as a protector against malicious forces.[61]
Modern folklore
Tales about Thor, or influenced by native traditions regarding Thor, continued into the modern period, particularly in Scandinavia. Writing in the 19th century, scholarJacob Grimm records various phrases surviving into Germanic languages that refer to the god, such as the NorwegianThorsvarme ("Thor's warmth") for lightning and the Swedishgodgubben åfar ("The good old (fellow) is taking a ride") as well as the wordtordön ("Thor's rumble" or "Thor's thunder") when it thunders. Grimm comments that, at times, Scandinavians often "no longer liked to utter the god's real name, or they wished to extol his fatherly goodness".[62] In Sweden, it was probably as a euphemism that people referred to thunder as "the ride of the god"—*ās-ækia (OWN: *áss-ekja) resulting in the modern Swedish word for thunder—åska.[63]
Thor remained pictured as a red-bearded figure, as evident by the Danish rhyme that yet referred to him asThor med sit lange skæg ("Thor with his long beard") and theNorth-Frisian cursediis ruadhiiret donner regiir! ("let red-haired thunder see to that!").[62]
A Scandinavian folk belief that lightning frightens awaytrolls andjötnar appears in numerous Scandinavian folktales, and may be a late reflection of Thor's role in fighting such beings. In connection, the lack of trolls and ettins in modern Scandinavia is explained as a result of the "accuracy and efficiency of the lightning strokes".[64]
In the Netherlands,The Sagas of Veluwe has a story calledOntstaan van het Uddeler- en Bleeke meer which features Thor and his fight with the Winter Giants.[65]
Archaeological record
Hammer pendants, hammer coins, and Eyrarland Statue
Around 1000 pendants in distinctive shapes representing the hammer of Thor have been unearthed in what are today the Nordic countries, England, northern Germany, the Baltic countries, and Russia. Most have very simple designs in iron or silver. Around 100 have more advanced designs with ornaments. The pendants have been found in a variety of contexts (including at urban sites, and in hoards) and occur in a variety of shapes. Similarly, coins featuring depictions of the hammer have also been discovered.
TheEyrarland Statue, a copper alloy figure found nearAkureyri, Iceland dating from around the 11th century, may depict Thor seated and gripping his hammer.[66]
Drawing of a silver-gilted Thor's hammer found inScania, Sweden
Drawing of a 4.6 cm gold-plated silverMjölnir pendant found atBredsätra onÖland, Sweden
Drawing of a silver Thor's hammer amulet found inFitjar,Hordaland, Norway
Drawing of Thor's hammer amulet fromMandemark,Møn, Denmark
A bronze statue of a seated figure from about AD 1000 that was recovered at the Eyrarland farm in the area ofAkureyri, Iceland.
Theswastika symbol has been identified as representing the hammer or lightning of Thor.[67] ScholarHilda Ellis Davidson (1965) comments on the usage of the swastika as a symbol of Thor:
The protective sign of the hammer was worn by women, as we know from the fact that it has been found in women's graves. It seems to have been used by the warrior also, in the form of the swastika. ... Primarily it appears to have had connections with light and fire, and to have been linked with the sun-wheel. It may have been on account of Thor's association with lightning that this sign was used as an alternative to the hammer, for it is found on memorial stones in Scandinavia besides inscriptions to Thor. When we find it on the pommel of a warrior's sword and on his sword-belt, the assumption is that the warrior was placing himself under the Thunder God's protection.[68]
Swastikas appear on various Germanic objects stretching from the Migration Period to the Viking Age, such as the 3rd centuryVærløse Fibula (DR EM85;123) fromZealand, Denmark; theGothic spearhead fromBrest-Litovsk, Belarus; numerous Migration Periodbracteates; cremation urns from earlyAnglo-Saxon England; the 8th centurySæbø sword fromSogn, Norway; and the 9th centurySnoldelev Stone (DR 248) fromRamsø, Denmark.
Eponymy and toponymy
A city limit sign markingThorsager ("Thor's Acre"), Denmark
Sign for the village ofThursley in Surrey, England
Numerous place names inScandinavia contain the Old Norse nameÞórr. The identification of these place names as pointing to religious significance is complicated by the aforementioned common usage ofÞórr as a personal name element. Cultic significance may only be assured in place names containing the elements-vé (signifying the location of avé, a type of pagan Germanic shrine),-hóf (a structure used for religious purposes, seeheathen hofs), and-lundr (aholy grove). The place nameÞórslundr is recorded with particular frequency inDenmark (and has direct cognates in Norse settlements inIreland, such asCoill Tomair), whereasÞórshof appears particularly often in southernNorway.[69]Torsö (Thor's Island) appears on the Swedish west coast. Thor also appears in many place names inUppland.
InEnglish place names, Old EnglishThunor (in contrast with the Old Norse form of the name, later introduced to theDanelaw) left comparatively few traces. Examples includeThundersley, from *Thunores hlæw andThurstable (Old English "Thunor's pillar").[69] F. M. Stenton noted that such place names were apparently restricted to Saxon and Jutish territory and not found in Anglian areas.[19][70]
In what is nowGermany, locations named after Thor are sparsely recorded, but a number of locations calledDonnersberg (German "Donner's mountain") may derive their name from the deityDonner, the southern Germanic form of the god's name.[69]In as late as the 19th century inIceland, a specific breed of fox was known asholtaþórr ("Thor of theholt"), likely due to the red coat of the breed.[71] In Sweden in the 19th century, smooth, wedge-shaped stones found in the earth were calledThorwiggar ("Thor's wedges"), according to a folk belief that they were once hurled at atroll by the god Thor. (CompareThunderstones.) Similarly,meteorites may be considered memorials to Thor in folk tradition due to their sheer weight. On the Swedish island ofGotland, a species of beetle (Scarabæus stercorarius) was named after the god; theThorbagge. When the beetle is found turned upside down and one flips it over, Thor's favor may be gained. In other regions of Sweden the name of the beetle appears to have been demonized with Christianization, where the insect came to be known asThordedjefvul orThordyfvel (both meaning "Thor-devil").[72]
In the northwest of Spain, there is a river calledTorío in the municipality ofCármenes (León) that take name from the god Thor.[73]
Origin, theories, and interpretations
Thor closely resembles other Indo-European deities associated with the thunder: theCelticTaranis,[74][75] theEstonianTaara (or Tharapita), theBalticPerkūnas, theSlavicPerun,[76] and particularly theHinduIndra, whose thunderbolt weapon thevajra is an obvious parallels noted already byMax Müller.[77] Scholars have compared Indra's slaying ofVritra with Thor's battle withJörmungandr.[75] Although in the past it was suggested that Thor was an indigenous sky god or a Viking Age import into Scandinavia, these Indo-European parallels make him generally accepted today as ultimately derived from aProto-Indo-European deity.[75][78][79][80]
InGeorges Dumézil'strifunctional hypothesis of Indo-European religion, Thor represents the second function, that of strength.Dumézil notes that as a result of displacements, he does not lead armies; most of the functions of Indra have been in effect taken over by Odin.[81] Many scholars have noted the association of Thor with fertility, particularly in later folklore and in the reflex of him represented by the SamiHora galles ("Good-man Thor"). ForDumézil, this is the preservation by peasants of only the side-effect of the god's atmospheric battles: the fertilizing rain.[82] Others have emphasized Thor's close connection to humanity, in all its concerns.[83] ScholarHilda Ellis Davidson summarizes:
The cult of Thor was linked with men's habitation and possessions, and with the well-being of the family and community. This included the fruitfulness of the fields, and Thor, although pictured primarily as astorm god in the myths, was also concerned with the fertility and preservation of the seasonal round. In our own times, little stone axes from the distant past have been used as fertility symbols and placed by the farmer in the holes made by the drill to receive the first seed of spring. Thor's marriage withSif of the golden hair, about which we hear little in the myths, seems to be a memory of the ancient symbol ofdivine marriage betweensky god andearth goddess, when he comes to earth in the thunderstorm and the storm brings the rain which makes the fields fertile. In this way Thor, as well as Odin, may be seen to continue the cult of the sky god which was known in theBronze Age.[84]
In modern times, Thor continues to be referred to in art and fiction. Starting withF. J. Klopstock's 1776 ode to Thor,Wir und Sie, Thor has been the subject of poems in several languages, includingAdam Gottlob Oehlenschläger's 1807 epic poemThors reise til Jotunheim and, by the same author, three more poems (Hammeren hentes,Thors fiskeri, andThor besøger Hymir) collected in his 1819Nordens Guder;Thors Trunk (1859) byWilhelm Hertz; the 1820 satirical poemMythologierne eller Gudatvisten byJ. M. Stiernstolpe;Nordens Mythologie eller Sinnbilled-Sprog (1832) byN. F. S. Grundtvig; the poemHarmen byThor Thorild;Der Mythus von Thor (1836) byLudwig Uhland;Der Hammer Thors (1915) byW. Schulte v. Brühl;Hans Friedrich Blunck'sHerr Dunnar und die Bauern (published inMärchen und Sagen, 1937); andDie Heimholung des Hammers (1977) byH. C. Artmann.[85] In English he features for example inHenry Wadsworth Longfellow's "The Challenge of Thor" (1863)[86] and in two works byRudyard Kipling:Letters of Travel: 1892–1913 and "Cold Iron" inRewards and Fairies.L. Sprague de Camp'sHarold Shea met with Thor, as with other Norse gods, in the first of Shea's many fantasy adventures.
Artists have also depicted Thor in painting and sculpture, includingHenry Fuseli's 1780 paintingThor Battering the Midgard Serpent;H. E. Freund's 1821–1822 statueThor; B. E. Fogelberg's 1844 marble statueThor;Mårten Eskil Winge's 1872 paintingThor's Fight with the Giants; K. Ehrenberg's 1883 drawingOdin, Thor und Magni; several illustrations byE. Doepler published inWilhelm Ranisch's 1901Walhall (Thor;Thor und die Midgardschlange;Thor den Hrungnir bekämpfend;Thor bei dem Riesen Þrym als Braut verkleidet;Thor bei Hymir;Thor bei Skrymir;Thor den Fluß Wimur durchwatend);J. C. Dollman's 1909 drawingsThor and the Mountain andSif and Thor; G. Poppe's paintingThor;E. Pottner's 1914 drawingThors Schatten; H. Natter's marble statueThor; and U. Brember's 1977 illustrations toDie Heimholung des Hammers byH. C. Artmann.[85]
In January 2020, the streaming serviceNetflix producedRagnarok. In the show, a high school student, Magne Seier, receives Thor's powers and abilities to fight the giants that are polluting Norway and murdering people. Netflix released the second season on 27 May 2021. Thor/Magne is portrayed byDavid Stakston.[92]
Thor is also featured in a number of video games. In the 2002Ensemble Studios gameAge of Mythology, Thor is one of three major gods Norse players can worship.[93][94][95] InSanta Monica Studio's 2018 video gameGod of War, Thor is mentioned throughout and his sons Magni and Modi are secondary antagonists. Thor makes an appearance at the end of the main storyline if certain difficulty conditions are met by the player.[96][97] He makes a much more substantial appearance in the game's 2022 sequelGod of War Ragnarök as a primary antagonist, played byRyan Hurst.[98] Thor is also mentioned inUbisoft's 2020 gameAssassin's Creed Valhalla, where items of his such as Mjölnir can be found and used by the player in combat.[99] Thor is also one of the playable gods in thethird-personmultiplayer online battle arena gameSmite.[100]
^Orchard, Andy (2003).A Critical Companion to Beowulf. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 120.ISBN978-1-84384-029-9.Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved28 January 2023. Page 120: "He was as fair in appearance, when he came among other men, as when ivory is inlaid in oak. His hair is fairer than gold."
^Gustafson, Hans (16 May 2018).Learning from Other Religious Traditions: Leaving Room for Holy Envy. Springer. p. 77.ISBN978-3-319-76108-4.Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved28 January 2023.It has always seemed a bit odd to me that this particular interpretation—that the major cosmological poem of Norse mythology is built on Christian motives that are never stated or alluded to in the text—has become hardwired in to the discipline of Scandinavian Studies, like the easily disprovable statement repeated by every major scholar that Thor had a red beard in theEddas.
^Hellquist, Elof (1922).Svensk etymologisk ordbok [Swedish etymological dictionary] (in Swedish). Lund: Gleerup. p. 1202.
^See Lindow (1978:89), but noted as early as Thorpe (1851:154) who states, "The dread entertained by the Trolls for thunder dates from the time of paganism, Thor, the god of thunder, being the deadly foe of their race."
^Weggelaar, Eva.The Creation of the Uddeler- and Pale Lake – Thunar and the Winter Giants
^Stenton, Frank (1941). "The Historical Bearing of Place-Name Studies: Anglo-Saxon Heathenism".Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th series, XXIII, 1–24, pp. 17– ; (1971).Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford History of England 2, 1943, 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971,ISBN978-0-19-821716-9, pp. 99–100.
de Vries, Jan (1957).Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte Volume 2. 2nd ed. (repr. 1970). Grundriß der germanischen Philologie, Volume 12/II. De Gruyter.(in German)
Meulengracht Sørensen, Preben (1986). "Thor's Fishing Expedition". InSteinsland, Gro (ed.).Words and Objects: Towards a Dialogue Between Archeology and History of Religion. Oslo: Norwegian University Press.ISBN82-00-07751-9.
Roymans, Nico (2009). "Hercules and the construction of a Batavian identity in the context of the Roman empire". In Roymans, Nico; Derks, Ton (eds.).Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 219–238.ISBN978-90-8964-078-9.JSTORj.ctt46n1n2.13.
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