According toChinese mythology and traditionalChinese historiography, theThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors (Chinese:三皇五帝;pinyin:Sān huáng wǔ dì) were a series ofsage Chinese emperors, and the firstEmperors of China.[1] Today, they are consideredculture heroes,[2] but they were widely worshipped as divine "ancestral spirits" in ancient times. According to received history, the period they existed in preceded theXia dynasty,[3] although they were thought to exist in later periods to an extent[4] inincorporeal forms that aided the Chinese people, especially with the stories ofNüwa existing as a spirit in theShang dynasty[5] andShennong being identified as the godly form ofHou Ji and a founder of theZhou dynasty.[6]
In myth, the Three Sovereigns were demigods who used their abilities to help create mankind and impart to them essential skills and knowledge. The Five Emperors were exemplary sages who possessed great moral character, and were from a golden age when "communications between the human order and the divine were central to all life" and where the sages embodied the divine, or aided humans in communicating divine forces.[7]
In this period theabdication system was used beforeQi of Xia violently seized power and established a hereditary monarchy.[8]
Taoistbeliefs consist of parables involvingshamanistic themes, which is origin of most ancient stories about the SovereignsFuxi,Nüwa, andShennong.[9] The idea of the existence of five emperors appeared in the 5th century BC. Scholars believe the tradition of susception appeared in the earlyWarring States period to support the political agenda of the ministers, that frequently overthrew their state rulers.[10]
There are six to seven known variations on which people constitute the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors, depending on the source.[11] Many of the known sources were written in much later dynasties.
The Three Sovereigns, sometimes known as the Three August Ones, were said to begod-kings ordemigods who used their magical powers, divine powers, or being in harmony with theTao to improve the lives of their people. Because of their lofty virtue, they lived to a great age and ruled over a period of great peace.
The Sovereigns have elements in common withxian from theTaoist pantheon, such as theHuman Sovereign's cloud-chariot and their supernatural abilities. Upon his death, the Yellow Emperor was "said to have become" axian.[12]
The Five Emperors were traditionally thought to have invented "fire, writing and irrigation".[14] Like the Three Sovereigns, they are ascribed different identities depending on historical source, as shown in the table below:
There is the legend of the Four Clans (四氏) who took part in creating the world,Youchao-shi (有巢氏),Suiren-shi (燧人氏),Fu Xi-shi (伏羲氏), andShennong-shi (神農氏).[17]
These Sovereigns and Emperors are said to have helped introduce the use of fire, taught people how to build houses, and invented farming. The Yellow Emperor's wife is credited with the invention ofsilk culture. The discovery ofmedicine and invention of thecalendar andChinese script are also credited to the kings. After their era,Yu the Great founded theXia dynasty, traditionally considered the first dynasty inChinese historiography.[3]
^ab"三皇五帝 – 国学网" [Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors – Chinese Studies Network] (in Chinese (China)). 2012-08-16. Retrieved2023-09-18.
^Hucker, Charles (1995).China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford University Press. p. 22.ISBN978-0-8047-2353-4.
^abMorton, W. Scott; Lewis, Charlton M. (2005).China: its history and culture (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 14.ISBN978-0-07-141279-7.
^Scarpari, Maurizio (2006).Ancient China: Chinese Civilization from the Origins to the Tang Dynasty. Translated by Milan, A.B.A. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 28.ISBN978-0-7607-8379-5.
^Ni, Xueting C. (2023).Chinese Myths: From Cosmology and Folklore to Gods and Immortals. London: Amber Books. pp. 76–77.ISBN978-1-83886-263-3.
^Asim, Ina (2007)."Keynotes 2". University of Oregon. Retrieved2023-07-18.
^Willard Gurdon Oxtoby, ed. (2002).World Religions: Eastern Traditions (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. pp. 324, 326.ISBN0-19-541521-3.OCLC46661540.
