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TheThree Crowned Kings,[a] were thetriumvirate ofChera,Chola andPandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country,Tamilakam, from their three Nadu (countries) ofChola Nadu,Pandya Nadu (present dayMadurai andTirunelveli) andChera Nadu (present dayKerala and some parts ofTamil Nadu) in southern India.[3] They signalled a time of integration and political identity for theTamil people.[4][full citation needed] They frequently waged war against one another under a period of instability[5] and between each other, held control overGreater Tamilakam from 6th century BCE to the 13th century. After being defeated by the Pandyas, the Cholas fled toDevicottah and are later mentioned in various texts that participated in wars in the 16th century.
The etymology of theTamil word for the three kings – Moovendhar (pronouncedMūvēntar) – comes fromTamil:மூ,romanized: mū,lit. 'three' andTamil:வேந்தர்,romanized: vēntar,lit. 'kings'.[6] They are mentioned byMegasthenes and theEdicts of Ashoka,[7] and first inTolkappiyam amongTamil literature which was the first to call them"Three Glorified by Heaven" (Tamil: வான்புகழ் மூவர்,Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar).Ptolemy and thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea mention three kingdoms rulingTamilakam.[8]
ThePandyas were the earliest of the Muvendhar and were of high antiquity being mentioned byKātyāyana andValmiki.[9] However the establishment of aPandya territory is not known until the sixth century under KingKadungon who liberated the Pandya country from theKalabhras.Xuanzang reports thatJainism was flourishing whileBuddhism was declining during this period.[citation needed] They were famous for being patrons of theTamil Sangams which were held in their capital,Madurai.Pliny mentions the Pandya country and its capital. The large number of Roman coins fromEmperor Augustus toEmperor Zeno found inMadurai shows that trade flourished amongRome,Greece andTamilakam. Two embassies sent from thePandya dynasty toEmperor Augustus were recorded.[citation needed] The Roman and Greek writers praise Korkai (now called Tuticorin or Thoothukudi) as the seaport of the Pandyas.[citation needed]
TheCholas were a prominent dynasty in South India, and they played a significant role in theSangam Age, which is generally considered to span from 300 BCE to 1297 CE. During this period, the Cholas engaged in extensive trade both within the Indian subcontinent and with foreign regions. Their trading activities helped them amass wealth, expand their influence, and contribute to the growth of their kingdom.
The Cholas had a well-developed maritime trade network, which allowed them to establish trade links with various regions, including SoutheastAsia,Sri Lanka, theArabian Peninsula, andEast Africa. They possessed a strong navy and used it to protect their trade routes and maintain control over the seas. Their trading activities were not limited to goods but also extended to cultural and intellectual exchanges.
One of the key commodities in Chola trade wasspices. They actively participated in the spice trade, importing and exporting various spices such as pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. TheCholas also traded in other valuable commodities like precious stones, pearls, textiles, ivory, and perfumes. They were known for their craftsmanship and exported exquisitebronze sculptures, pottery, and textiles, which were highly sought after in foreign markets.
TheChera dynasty was another prominent power during theSangam Age (early historic period) in South India, alongside the Chola and Pandya dynasties. The Chera country, associated with present-day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu (the Kongu region), had a significant impact on trade and the broader economy of the period.
The Cheras were especially known for their extensive maritime trade. They controlled important ports along theMalabar Coast, includingMuziris (possibly modern-dayKodungallur), and Tyndis. These ports functioned as major hubs for international commerce, attracting merchants from various parts of the world, particularly from theMiddle East.
The Chera country played a crucial role in the highly lucrativespice trade. It was actively involved in the export of valuable spices such as black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. These commodities were in high demand in the Roman Empire and other western markets, and the Cheras appear to have capitalized on this demand to accumulate substantial wealth.
In addition to spices, the people of theMalabar Coast also traded in other valuable goods, including ivory, pearls, textiles, precious stones, and forest products. With access to the abundant natural resources of theWestern Ghats and the forests of Kerala, they were able to export timber, teak, sandalwood, and medicinal herbs—many of which were highly sought after in Middle Eastern markets.
TheSilappatikaram alludes to thesolar ancestry of the Cholas and thelunar ancestry of the Pandyas. It does not mention anything about the ancestry of the Cheras.[10] The 15th-century TamilMahabharata of Villiputtur Alvar describes the Chera king as from thefire dynasty, retaining the solar and lunar origins for the Chola and the Pandya kings, respectively.[11] TheTiruvilayatar Puranam (orThiruvilaiyadal Puranam), possibly from the 17th century, also states that when Brahma re-created the world after adeluge, he created the Chera, Chola and the Pandya kings as descendants of the fire, the sun and the moon, respectively.[10]
Chola Purva Patayam ("AncientChola Record"), aTamil language manuscript of uncertain date, contains a legend about the divine origin of the three crowned kings. According to it, theShramana kingShalivahana (also known as Bhoja in this story) defeatedVikramaditya, and started persecuting the worshipers ofShiva andVishnu. After failing to kill Shalivahana with a rain of fire, Shiva created three kings: Vira Cholan (Chola), Ula Cheran (Chera), and Vajranga Pandiyan (Pandya). The three kings came to bathe together at thetriveni sangam (three-river confluence) in Thirumukkoodal, and formed an alliance against Shalivahana. Next, they went through a number of adventures at various places, including Kashi andKanchi. With the blessings ofDurga, they found treasure and inscriptions ofHindu kings from the age ofShantanu to Vikramaditya. They then reached Cudatturiyur (possiblyUraiyur), where Vira Cholan wrote letters to all those who worshipped Shiva and Vishnu, seeking their help against Shalivahana. A number of people assembled at Cudatturiyur to support the three kings' campaign. When Shalivahana heard of this preparation, he marched towards the south and took possession of the strong citadel atTiruchirappalli. The three kings sent their envoy to Shalivahana, asking him to surrender and renounce his faith. When he refused, they and their allies assembled an army atThiruvanaikaval. From an inscription that they had earlier found at Kanchi, they realised that there was a subterranean entrance into the Tiruchirappalli fort. They sent a few soldiers who entered the fort and opened itsChintamani gate. Their forces then entered the fortress, and defeated Shalivahana.Chola Purva Patayam dates Shalivahana's defeat to the year 1443 of an uncertain calendar era (possibly from the beginning ofKali Yuga).[12][better source needed]
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