In his early life, overshadowed by his father's departure following a fight, he was taken under the care of his wealthy uncle. Hobbes's academic journey began inWestport, leading him to theUniversity of Oxford, where he was exposed to classical literature and mathematics. He then graduated from theUniversity of Cambridge in 1608. He became a tutor to theCavendish family, which connected him to intellectual circles and initiated his extensive travels across Europe. These experiences, including meetings with figures likeGalileo, shaped his intellectual development.
After returning to England from France in 1637, Hobbes witnessed the destruction and brutality of theEnglish Civil War from 1642 to 1651 between Parliamentarians and Royalists, which heavily influenced his advocacy for governance by anabsolutesovereign inLeviathan, as the solution to human conflict and societal breakdown. Aside from social contract theory,Leviathan also popularized ideas such as thestate of nature ("war of all against all") andlaws of nature. His other major works include the trilogyDe Cive (1642),De Corpore (1655), andDe Homine (1658) as well as the posthumous workBehemoth (1681).
Hobbes contributed to a diverse array of fields, including history,jurisprudence,geometry,optics,theology, classical translations,ethics, as well as philosophy in general, marking him as apolymath. Despite controversies and challenges, including accusations ofatheism and contentious debates with contemporaries, Hobbes's work profoundly influenced the understanding of political structure and human nature.
Thomas Hobbes was born on 5 April 1588 (Old Style), inWestport, now part ofMalmesbury inWiltshire, England. Having been bornprematurely when his mother heard of the cominginvasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that "my mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear."[7] Hobbes had a brother, Edmund, about two years older, as well as a sister, Anne.
Although Thomas Hobbes's childhood is unknown to a large extent, as is his mother's name,[8] it is known that Hobbes's father, Thomas Sr., was thevicar of bothCharlton and Westport. Hobbes's father was uneducated, according toJohn Aubrey, Hobbes's biographer, and he "disesteemed learning."[9] Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the localclergy outside his church, forcing him to leaveLondon. As a result, the family was left in the care of Thomas Sr.'s older brother, Francis, a wealthy glove manufacturer with no family of his own.
At university, Thomas Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum as he was little attracted by the scholastic learning.[10] Leaving Oxford, Hobbes completed hisB.A. degree by incorporation atSt John's College, Cambridge, in 1608.[14] He was recommended by Sir James Hussey, his master at Magdalen, as tutor toWilliam, the son ofWilliam Cavendish,[10]Baron of Hardwick (and laterEarl of Devonshire), and began a lifelong connection with that family.[15] William Cavendish was elevated to the peerage on his father's death in 1626, holding it for two years before his death in 1628. His son, also William, likewise became the 3rd Earl of Devonshire. Hobbes served as a tutor and secretary to both men. The 1st Earl's younger brother, Charles Cavendish, had two sons who were patrons of Hobbes. The elder son,William Cavendish, later 1stDuke of Newcastle, was a leading supporter of Charles I during theCivil War in which he personally financed an army for the king, having been governor to thePrince of Wales, Charles James, Duke of Cornwall. It was to this William Cavendish that Hobbes dedicated hisElements of Law.[9]
Hobbes became a companion to the younger William Cavendish and they both took part in agrand tour of Europe between 1610 and 1615. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour, in contrast to thescholastic philosophy that he had learned in Oxford. In Venice, Hobbes made the acquaintance ofFulgenzio Micanzio, an associate ofPaolo Sarpi, a Venetian scholar and statesman.[9]
His scholarly efforts at the time were aimed at a careful study of classical Greek and Latin authors, the outcome of which was, in 1628, his edition ofThucydides'History of the Peloponnesian War,[10] the first translation of that work into English directly from a Greek manuscript. Hobbes professed a deep admiration for Thucydides, praising him as "the most politic historiographer that ever writ," and one scholar has suggested that "Hobbes' reading of Thucydides confirmed, or perhaps crystallized, the broad outlines and many of the details of [Hobbes'] own thought."[16] It has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known asHorae Subsecivae: Observations and Discourses also represent the work of Hobbes from this period.[17]
Although he did associate with literary figures likeBen Jonson and briefly worked asFrancis Bacon'samanuensis, translating several of hisEssays into Latin,[9] he did not extend his efforts into philosophy until after 1629. In June 1628, his employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of theplague, and his widow, the countessChristian, dismissed Hobbes.[18][19]
Hobbes soon (in 1629) found work as a tutor toGervase Clifton, the son ofSir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, and continued in this role until November 1630.[20] He spent most of this time in Paris. Thereafter, he again found work with the Cavendish family, tutoringWilliam Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, the eldest son of his previous pupil. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy, awakening in him curiosity over key philosophic debates. He visitedGalileo Galilei inFlorence while he was under house arrest uponcondemnation, in 1636, and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together byMarin Mersenne.[18]
Hobbes's first area of study was an interest in the physical doctrine of motion and physical momentum. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics. He went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. His scheme was first to work out, in a separatetreatise, a systematic doctrine of body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, at least as motion or mechanical action was then understood. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants. Then, in another treatise, he showed what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the peculiar phenomena of sensation, knowledge, affections and passions whereby Man came into relation with Man. Finally, he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if people were not to fall back into "brutishness and misery". Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, and the State.[18]
Hobbes came back home from Paris, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent, which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan.[18] However, by the end of theShort Parliament in 1640, he had written a short treatise calledThe Elements of Law, Natural and Politic. It was not published and only circulated as a manuscript among his acquaintances. A pirated version, however, was published about ten years later. Although it seems that much ofThe Elements of Law was composed before the sitting of theShort Parliament, there are polemical pieces of the work that clearly mark the influences of the rising political crisis. Nevertheless, many (though not all) elements of Hobbes's political thought were unchanged betweenThe Elements of Law andLeviathan, which demonstrates that the events of theEnglish Civil War had little effect on hiscontractarian methodology. However, the arguments inLeviathan were modified fromThe Elements of Law when it came to the necessity of consent in creating political obligation: Hobbes wrote inThe Elements of Law thatpatrimonial kingdoms were not necessarily formed by theconsent of the governed, while inLeviathan he argued that they were. This was perhaps a reflection either of Hobbes's thoughts about theengagement controversy or of his reaction to treatises published byPatriarchalists, such asSir Robert Filmer, between 1640 and 1651.[citation needed]
When in November 1640 theLong Parliament succeeded the Short, Hobbes felt that he was in disfavour due to the circulation of his treatise and fled to Paris. He did not return for 11 years. In Paris, he rejoined the coterie around Mersenne and wrote a critique of theMeditations on First Philosophy ofRené Descartes, which was printed as third among the sets of "Objections" appended, with "Replies" from Descartes, in 1641. A different set of remarks on other works by Descartes succeeded only in ending all correspondence between the two.[21]
Hobbes also extended his own works in a way, working on the third section,De Cive, which was finished in November 1641. Although it was initially only circulated privately, it was well received, and included lines of argumentation that were repeated a decade later inLeviathan. He then returned to hard work on the first two sections of his work and published little except a short treatise on optics (Tractatus opticus), included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne asCogitata physico-mathematica in 1644. He built a good reputation in philosophic circles and in 1645 was chosen with Descartes,Gilles de Roberval and others to referee the controversy betweenJohn Pell andLongomontanus over the problem ofsquaring the circle.[21]
TheEnglish Civil War began in 1642, and when theroyalist cause began to decline in mid-1644, many royalists came to Paris and were known to Hobbes.[21] This revitalised Hobbes's political interests, and theDe Cive was republished and more widely distributed. The printing began in 1646 bySamuel de Sorbiere through theElsevier press inAmsterdam with a new preface and some new notes in reply to objections.[21]
In 1647, Hobbes took up a position as mathematical instructor to the youngCharles, Prince of Wales, who had come to Paris fromJersey around July. This engagement lasted until 1648 when Charles went to Holland.[21]
Frontispiece fromDe Cive (1642)
The company of the exiled royalists led Hobbes to produceLeviathan, which set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war. Hobbes compared the State to a monster (leviathan) composed of men, created under pressure of human needs and dissolved by civil strife due to human passions. The work closed with a general "Review and Conclusion", in response to the war, which answered the question: Does a subject have the right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect is irrevocably lost?[21]
During the years of composingLeviathan, Hobbes remained in or near Paris. In 1647, he suffered a near-fatal illness that disabled him for six months.[21] On recovering, he resumed his literary task and completed it by 1650. Meanwhile, a translation ofDe Cive was being produced; scholars disagree about whether it was Hobbes who translated it.[22]
In 1650, a pirated edition ofThe Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was published.[23] It was divided into two small volumes:Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie; andDe corpore politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politick.[22]
In 1651, the translation ofDe Cive was published under the titlePhilosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society.[24] Also, the printing of the greater work proceeded, and finally appeared in mid-1651, titledLeviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common Wealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. It had a famous title-page engraving depicting a crowned giant above the waist towering above hills overlooking a landscape, holding a sword and acrozier and made up of tiny human figures. The work had immediate impact.[22] Soon, Hobbes was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time.[22] The first effect of its publication was to sever his link with the exiled royalists, who might well have killed him.[22] The secularist spirit of his book greatly angered bothAnglicans andFrench Catholics.[22] Hobbes appealed to the revolutionary English government for protection and fled back to London in winter 1651.[22] After his submission to theCouncil of State, he was allowed to subside into private life[22] inFetter Lane.[25]
In 1658, Hobbes published the final section of his philosophical system, completing the scheme he had planned more than 19 years before.De Homine consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of vision. The remainder of the treatise dealt partially with some of the topics more fully treated in theHuman Nature and theLeviathan. In addition to publishing some controversial writings on mathematics, including disciplines like geometry, Hobbes also continued to produce philosophical works.[22]
From the time ofthe Restoration, he acquired a new prominence; "Hobbism" became a byword for all that respectable society ought to denounce. The young king, Hobbes's former pupil, now Charles II, remembered Hobbes and called him to the court to grant him a pension of £100.[26]
The king was important in protecting Hobbes when, in 1666, theHouse of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. That same year, on 17 October 1666, it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... in particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called theLeviathan."[27] Hobbes was terrified at the prospect of being labelled aheretic, and proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time, he examined the actual state of the law of heresy. The results of his investigation were first announced in three short Dialogues added as anAppendix to hisLatin translation of Leviathan, published in Amsterdam in 1668. In this appendix, Hobbes aimed to show that, since theHigh Court of Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy except opposing theNicene Creed, which, he maintained,Leviathan did not do.[28]
The only consequence that came of the bill was that Hobbes could never thereafter publish anything in England on subjects relating to human conduct. The 1668 edition of his works was printed in Amsterdam because he could not obtain the censor's licence for its publication in England. Other writings were not made public until after his death, includingBehemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1662. For some time, Hobbes was not even allowed to respond to any attacks by his enemies. Despite this, his reputation abroad was formidable.[28]
Hobbes spent the last four or five years of his life with his patron,William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, at the family'sChatsworth House estate. He had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he first tutored an earlier William Cavendish.[29] After Hobbes's death, many of his manuscripts would be found at Chatsworth House.[30]
His final works were an autobiography in Latin verse in 1672, and a translation of four books of theOdyssey into "rugged" English rhymes that in 1673 led to a complete translation of bothIliad andOdyssey in 1675.[28]
Hobbes found official political thought dominated by the idea that government was to be obeyed because ordained of God; and he substituted the theory that the state was instituted by man for his own convenience, and that it should be obeyed because the consequences of disobedience can be demonstrated to be more disagreeable than obedience, in almost all cases. That is to say, expediency, not morality, is for Hobbes the motive for political obedience.[34]
Hobbes, influenced by contemporary scientific ideas, had intended for his political theory to be a quasi-geometrical system, in which the conclusions followed inevitably from the premises.[9] In his theory, the state or society cannot be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. This particular view owes its significance to it being first developed in the 1630s whenCharles I had sought to raise revenues without the consent of Parliament, and therefore of his subjects.[9] Hobbes rejected one of the most famoustheses ofAristotle's politics, namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in apolis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role ofcitizen.[35] It is perhaps also important to note that Hobbes extrapolated his mechanistic understanding of nature into the social and political realm, making him a progenitor of the term "social structure".
InLeviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation ofstates and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.[36] Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war.
Beginning from amechanistic understanding of human beings and their passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls thestate of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). The description contain one of the best-known passages in English philosophy, which describes the natural state humankind would be in, were it not for political community:[37]
In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.[38]
The preface of Thomas Hobbes'sLeviathan, read in his original Latin adaptation, with English subtitles
In such states, people fear death and lack both the things necessary to comfortable living, and the hope of being able to obtain them. So, in order to avoid it, people accede to asocial contract and establish acivil society. According to Hobbes, society is a population and asovereignauthority, to whom all individuals in that society cede some right[39] for the sake of protection. Power exercised by this authority cannot be resisted, because the protector's sovereign power derives from individuals' surrendering their own sovereign power for protection. The individuals are thereby the authors of all decisions made by the sovereign:[40] "he that complaineth of injury from his sovereign complaineth that whereof he himself is the author, and therefore ought not to accuse any man but himself, no nor himself of injury because to do injury to one's self is impossible". There is no doctrine ofseparation of powers in Hobbes's discussion. He argues that any division of authority would lead to internal strife, jeopardizing the stability provided by an absolute sovereign.[41][42] According to Hobbes, the sovereign must control civil, military, judicial andecclesiastical powers, even the words.[43]
In 1654 a small treatise,Of Liberty and Necessity, directed at Hobbes, was published by BishopJohn Bramhall.[22][44] Bramhall, a strongArminian, had met and debated with Hobbes and afterwards wrote down his views and sent them privately to be answered in this form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication. However, a French acquaintance took a copy of the reply and published it with "an extravagantly laudatory epistle".[22] Bramhall countered in 1655, when he printed everything that had passed between them (under the title ofA Defence of the True Liberty of Human Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity).[22]
In 1656, Hobbes was ready withThe Questions Concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance, in which he replied "with astonishing force"[22] to the bishop. As perhaps the first clear exposition of the psychological doctrine of determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces were important in the history of thefree will controversy. The bishop returned to the charge in 1658 withCastigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions, and also included a bulky appendix entitledThe Catching of Leviathan the Great Whale.[45]
Hobbes opposed the existing academic arrangements, and assailed the system of the original universities inLeviathan. He went on to publishDe Corpore, which contained not only tendentious views on mathematics but also an erroneous proof of thesquaring of the circle. This all led mathematicians to target him forpolemics and sparkedJohn Wallis to become one of his most persistent opponents. From 1655, the publishing date ofDe Corpore, Hobbes and Wallis continued name-calling and bickering for nearly a quarter of a century, with Hobbes failing to admit his error to the end of his life.[46] After years of debate, the spat over proving the squaring of the circle gained such notoriety that it has become one of the most infamous feuds in mathematical history.
The religious opinions of Hobbes remain controversial as many positions have been attributed to him and range from atheism to orthodox Christianity. InThe Elements of Law, Hobbes provided a cosmological argument for the existence of God, saying that God is "the first cause of all causes".[47]
Hobbes was accused of atheism by several contemporaries; Bramhall accused him of teachings that could lead to atheism. This was an important accusation, and Hobbes himself wrote, in his answer to Bramhall'sThe Catching of Leviathan, that "atheism, impiety, and the like are words of the greatest defamation possible".[48] Hobbes always defended himself from such accusations.[49] In more recent times also, much has been made of his religious views by scholars such as Richard Tuck andJ. G. A. Pocock, but there is still widespread disagreement about the exact significance of Hobbes's unusual views on religion.
As Martinich has pointed out, in Hobbes's time the term "atheist" was often applied to people who believed in God but not indivine providence, or to people who believed in God but also maintained other beliefs that were considered to be inconsistent with such belief or judged incompatible with orthodox Christianity. He says that this "sort of discrepancy has led to many errors in determining who was an atheist in theearly modern period".[50] In this extended early modern sense of atheism, Hobbes did take positions that strongly disagreed with church teachings of his time. For example, he argued repeatedly that there are no incorporeal substances, and that all things, including human thoughts, and even God, heaven, and hell are corporeal, matter in motion. He argued that "though Scripture acknowledge spirits, yet doth it nowhere say, that they are incorporeal, meaning thereby without dimensions and quantity".[51] (In this view, Hobbes claimed to be followingTertullian.) LikeJohn Locke, he also stated that truerevelation can never disagree with human reason and experience,[52] although he also argued that people should accept revelation and its interpretations for the same reason that they should accept the commands of their sovereign: in order to avoid war.
While in Venice on tour, Hobbes made the acquaintance of Fulgenzio Micanzio, a close associate of Paolo Sarpi, who had written against the pretensions of the papacy to temporal power in response to theInterdict ofPope Paul V againstVenice, which refused to recognise papal prerogatives. James I had invited both men to England in 1612. Micanzio and Sarpi had argued that God willed human nature, and that human nature indicated the autonomy of the state in temporal affairs. When he returned to England in 1615,William Cavendish maintained correspondence with Micanzio and Sarpi, and Hobbes translated the latter's letters from Italian, which were circulated among the Duke's circle.[9]
Molesworth edition title:The Whole Art of Rhetoric.
Authorship probable: While Schuhmann (1998) firmly rejects the attribution of this work to Hobbes,[58] a preponderance of scholarship disagrees with Schuhmann's idiosyncratic assessment. Schuhmann disagrees with historianQuentin Skinner, who would come to agree with Schuhmann.[59][60]
1639.Tractatus Opticus II (also known asLatin Optical Manuscript).[61][62]
1640.Elements of Law, Natural and Politic
Initially circulated only in handwritten copies; without Hobbes's permission, the first printed edition would be in 1650.
1641.Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosophia 3rd series of Objections.
First edition (1973) with the title:Thomas White's De Mundo Examined.
1644. Part of the "Praefatio to Mersenni Ballistica". InF. Marini Mersenni minimi Cogitata physico-mathematica. In quibus tam naturae quàm artis effectus admirandi certissimis demonstrationibus explicantur.
1644. "Opticae, liber septimus" (also known asTractatus opticus I written in 1640). InUniversae geometriae mixtaeque mathematicae synopsis, edited byMarin Mersenne.
Molesworth edition (OL V, pp. 215–248) title: "Tractatus Opticus".
1656.Elements of Philosophy, The First Section, Concerning Body – anonymous English translation ofDe Corpore
1656.Six Lessons to the Professor of Mathematics
1656.The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance – reprint ofOf Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise, with the addition of Bramhall's reply and Hobbes's reply to Bramahall's reply.
1657.Stigmai, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis
1658.Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda De Homine
1660.Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae qualis explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii
1661.Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris
1662.Problematica Physica
English translation titled:Seven Philosophical Problems (1682)
1662.Seven Philosophical Problems, and Two Propositions of Geometry – published posthumously
1662.Mr. Hobbes Considered in his Loyalty, Religion, Reputation, and Manners. By way of Letter to Dr. Wallis – English autobiography
1666.De Principis & Ratiocinatione Geometrarum
1666.A Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws of England (publ. 1681)
1668.An answer to a book published by Dr. Bramhall, late bishop of Derry; called the Catching of the leviathan. Together with an historical narration concerning heresie, and the punishment thereof (publ. 1682)
1671.Three Papers Presented to the Royal Society Against Dr. Wallis. Together with Considerations on Dr. Wallis his Answer to them
1671.Rosetum Geometricum, sive Propositiones Aliquot Frustra antehac tentatae. Cum Censura brevi Doctrinae Wallisianae de Motu
The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance, clearly stated and debated between Dr Bramhall Bishop of Derry and Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury.
A Dialogue Between a Philosopher & a Student of the Common Laws of England
A Dialogue of the Common Law
Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil Wars of England, and of the Counsels and Artifices By Which They Were Carried on From the Year 1640 to the Year 1660
The Whole Art of Rhetoric (Hobbes's translation of his own Latin summary of Aristotle's Rhetoric published in 1637 with the titleA Briefe of the Art of Rhetorique)
The Art of Rhetoric Plainly Set Forth. With Pertinent Examples For the More Easy Understanding and Practice of the Same (this work is not of Hobbes but by Dudley Fenner,The Artes of Logike and Rethorike, 1584)
1639, British Library, Harley MS 6796, ff. 193–266
Tractatus opticus II (1st complete ed.)
Pp. 147–228 inRivista critica di storia della filosofia 18
1963
Franco Alessio
Omits the diagrams
Critique du 'De mundo' de Thomas White
Paris: 1973
Jean Jacquot and Harold Whitmore Jones
Includes three appendixes:
De Motibus Solis, Aetheris & Telluris (pp. 439–447: a Latin poem on the movement of the Earth).
Notes in English on an ancient redaction of some chapters ofDe Corpore (July 1643; pp. 448–460: MS 5297, National Library of Wales).
Notes for theLogica andPhilosophia prima of theDe Corpore (pp. 461–513: Chatsworth MS A10 and the notes of Charles Cavendish on a draft of theDe Corpore: British Library, Harley MS 6083).
Of the Life and History of Thucydides
pp. 10–27 inHobbes's Thucydides
New Brunswick: 1975
Richard Schlatter
Three Discourses: A Critical Modern Edition of Newly Identified Work of the Young Hobbes (TD)
pp. 10–27 inHobbes's Thucydides
Chicago: 1975
Noel B. Reynolds and Arlene Saxonhouse
Includes:
A Discourse upon the Beginning of Tacitus pp. 31–67.
A Discourse of Rome, pp. 71–102.
A Discourse of Law, pp. 105–119.
Thomas Hobbes' A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques: A Critical Edition
University of Wisconsin-Madison: 1983 - PhD dissertation
Elaine C. Stroud
British Library, Harley MS 3360
Of Passions
pp. 729–738 inRivista di storia della filosofia 43
1988
Anna Minerbi Belgrado
Edition of the unpublished manuscript Harley 6093
The Correspondence of Thomas Hobbes (I: 1622–1659; II: 1660–1679)
De Corpore, Part I. Computatio Sive Logica. Edited with an Introductory Essay by L C. Hungerland and G. R. Vick. Translation and Commentary by A. Martinich. New York: Abaris Books, 1981.
Thomas White's De mundo Examined, translation by H. W. Jones, Bradford: Bradford University Press, 1976 (the appendixes of the Latin edition (1973) are not enclosed).
^ab"Thomas Hobbes".Thomas Hobbes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved12 March 2009.
^Bickley, Francis (1914).The Cavendish Family. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 44.OCLC362209.Archived from the original on 22 April 2024. Retrieved22 April 2024.
^abMalcolm, Noel (2003).Aspects of Hobbes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 80.ISBN0199247145.Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved19 March 2023.
^Hill, Christopher (1968) [1958]. "Thomas Hobbes and the Revolution in Political Thought".Puritanism and Revolution: Studies in Interpretation of the English Revolution of the 17th Century. Panther History. London: Panther Books. p. 269.OCLC10531418.
^Part I,Chapter XIV. Of the First and Second Naturall Lawes, and of Contracts. (Not All Rights are Alienable),Leviathan: "And therefore there be some Rights, which no man can be understood by any words, or other signes, to have abandoned, or transferred. As first a man cannot lay down the right of resisting them, that assault him by force, to take away his life; because he cannot be understood to ayme thereby, at any Good to himselfe. The same may be sayd of Wounds, and Chayns, and Imprisonment".
^Gaskin. "Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution".Leviathan. Oxford University Press. p. 117.
^"1000 Makers of the Millennium", p. 42. Dorling Kindersley, 1999
^Peter, Kanzler (31 May 2020).The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Social Contract (1762), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776). Peter Kanzler. p. 44.ISBN978-1-716-89340-7.
^Duncan, Stewart (2021)."Thomas Hobbes".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved6 April 2022.
^Bernhardt, Jean. 1988.Court traité des premiers principes. Paris:PUF. (Critical edition with commentary and French translation).
^Timothy Raylor, Franco Giudice, Stephen Clucas, andNoel Malcolm vote for Robert Payne.Karl Schuhmann, Cees Leijenhorst, Guilherme Rodrigues Neto, and Frank Horstmann vote for Thomas Hobbes. On arguments pro Payne see Timothy Raylor,Hobbes, Payne, and 'A Short Tract on First Principles' (The Historical Journal, 44, 2001, pp. 29–58) and Noel Malcolm,Robert Payne, the Hobbes Manuscripts, and the 'Short Tract' (in:Aspects of Hobbes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 80–145). On arguments pro Hobbes see Karl Schuhmann,Le 'Short Tract', première oeuvre philosophique de Hobbes (Hobbes Studies, 8, 1995, pp. 3-36.) and Frank Horstmann,Der Grauvließer. Robert Payne und Thomas Hobbes als Urheber des 'Short Tract' (Berlin: epubli, 2020,ISBN978-3-752952-92-6.)
^Harwood, John T., ed. 1986.The Rhetorics of Thomas Hobbes and Bernard Lamy. Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press. (Provides a new edition of the work).
^Schuhmann, Karl (1998). "Skinner's Hobbes".British Journal for the History of Philosophy.6 (1): 115.doi:10.1080/09608789808570984. p. 118.
^First complete edition: 1963. For this dating, see the convincing arguments given by: Horstmann, Frank. 2006.Nachträge zu Betrachtungen über Hobbes' Optik. Berlin: Mackensen.ISBN978-3-926535-51-1. pp. 19–94.
^A critical analysis of Thomas White (1593–1676)De mundo dialogi tres, Parisii, 1642.
^Elaine Condouris Stroud,Thomas Hobbes' A Minute Or First Draught of the Optiques: A Critical Edition, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, Ph.D., 1983.
^Modern scholars are divided as to whether or not this translation was done by Hobbes. For a pro-Hobbes account see H. Warrender's introduction toDe Cive: The English Edition inThe Clarendon Edition of the Works of Thomas Hobbes (Oxford, 1984). For the contra-Hobbes account see Noel Malcolm, "Charles Cotton, Translator of Hobbes's De Cive" inAspects of Hobbes (Oxford, 2002)
^critical edition:Court traité des premiers principes, text, French translation and commentary by Jean Bernhardt, Paris: PUF, 1988
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