Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher. Known as the "sage ofChelsea", his writings strongly influenced the intellectual and artistic culture of theVictorian era.
Carlyle was born inEcclefechan, a village inDumfriesshire, Scotland. He attended theUniversity of Edinburgh, where he excelled in mathematics and invented theCarlyle circle. After finishing the arts course he prepared to become a minister in theBurgher Church while working as a schoolmaster. He quit these and several other endeavours before settling on literature, writing for theEdinburgh Encyclopædia and working as a translator. He initially gained prominence in English-languageliterary circles for his extensive writing onGerman Romantic literature and philosophy. These themes were explored in his first major work, a semi-autobiographicalphilosophical novel entitledSartor Resartus (1833–34).
Carlyle occupied a central position in Victorian culture, being considered the "undoubted head ofEnglish letters"[2][3] and a "secular prophet". Posthumously, a series of publications by his friendJames Anthony Froude damaged Carlyle's reputation, provoking controversy about his personal life and his marriage toJane Welsh Carlyle in particular. His reputation further declined in the aftermaths of theFirst World War and theSecond World War, when his philosophy was seen as a precursor of bothPrussianism andfascism. Growing scholarship in the field of Carlyle studies since the 1950s has improved his standing, and although little-read today, he is yet recognised as "one of the enduring monuments of [English] literature".[4]
Thomas Carlyle was born on 4 December 1795 to James and Margaret Aitken Carlyle in the village of Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire in southwest Scotland. His parents were members of theBurgher secessionPresbyterian church.[5] James Carlyle was a stonemason, later a farmer, who built theArched House wherein his son was born. Hismaxim was that "man was created to work, not to speculate, or feel, or dream."[6]Nicholas Carlisle, an English antiquary, traced his ancestry back to Margaret Bruce, sister ofRobert the Bruce.[7]
As a result of his upbringing, James Carlyle became deeply religious in his youth, reading many books of sermons and doctrinal arguments throughout his life. In 1791 he married his first wife, distant cousin Janet, who gave birth to John Carlyle and then died. He married Margaret Aitken in 1795, a poor farmer's daughter then working as a servant. They had nine children, of whom Thomas was the eldest. Margaret was pious and devout and hoped that Thomas would become a minister. She was close to her eldest son, being a "smoking companion, counsellor and confidante" in Carlyle's early days. She suffered a manic episode when Carlyle was a teenager, in which she became "elated, disinhibited, over-talkative and violent."[8] She suffered another breakdown in 1817, which required her to be removed from her home and restrained.[9] Carlyle always spoke highly of his parents, and his character was deeply influenced by both of them.[10]
Carlyle's early education came from his mother, who taught him reading (despite being barely literate), and his father, who taught him arithmetic.[11] He first attended "Tom Donaldson's School" in Ecclefechan followed byHoddam School (c. 1802–1806), which "then stood at theKirk", located at the "Cross-roads" midway between Ecclefechan andHoddam Castle.[12] By age 7 Carlyle showed enough proficiency in English that he was advised to "go into Latin", which he did with enthusiasm; however, the schoolmaster at Hoddam did not know Latin, so he was handed over to a minister that did, with whom he made a "rapid & sure way".[13] He then went toAnnan Academy (c. 1806–1809), where he studied rudimentary Greek, read Latin and French fluently, and learned arithmetic "thoroughly well".[14] Carlyle was severely bullied by his fellow students at Annan, until he "revolted against them, and gave stroke for stroke"; he remembered the first two years there as among the most miserable of his life.[15]
In November 1809 at nearly fourteen years of age, Carlyle walked one hundred miles from his home in order to attend theUniversity of Edinburgh (c. 1809–1814), where he studied mathematics withJohn Leslie, science withJohn Playfair andmoral philosophy withThomas Brown.[17] He gravitated to mathematics and geometry and displayed great talent in those subjects, being credited with the invention of theCarlyle circle. In the University library he read many important works of eighteenth-century and contemporary history, philosophy andbelles-lettres.[18] He began expressing religious scepticism around this time, asking his mother to her horror, "Did God Almighty come down and make wheelbarrows in a shop?"[19] In 1813 he completed his arts curriculum and enrolled in a theology course atDivinity Hall, Edinburgh, the following academic year. This was to be the preliminary of a ministerial career.[20]
Carlyle began teaching at Annan Academy in June 1814.[21] In December 1814 and December 1815, he gave his first trial sermons, both of which are lost.[22] By the summer of 1815 he had taken an interest inastronomy[23] and would study the astronomical theories ofPierre-Simon Laplace for several years.[24] In November 1816 he began teaching atKirkcaldy, having left Annan. There, he made friends withEdward Irving, whose ex-pupil Margaret Gordon became Carlyle's "first love". In May 1817,[25] Carlyle abstained from enrolment in the theology course, news which his parents received with "magnanimity".[26] In the autumn of that year, he readDe l'Allemagne (1813) byGermaine de Staël, which prompted him to seek a German teacher, with whom he learned the pronunciation.[27] In Irving's library he read the works ofDavid Hume andEdward Gibbon'sThe History of theDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789); he would later recall that
I read Gibbon, and then first clearly saw thatChristianity was not true. Then came the most trying time of my life. I should either have gone mad or made an end of myself had I not fallen in with some very superior minds.[28]
Mineralogy, law and first publications (1818–1821)
Jane Baillie Welsh byKenneth Macleay, 1826, shortly before marriage
In the summer of 1818, following an expedition with Irving through the moors ofPeebles andMoffat, Carlyle made his first attempt at publishing, forwarding an article describing what he saw to the editor of an Edinburgh magazine, which was not published and is now lost.[29] In October, Carlyle resigned from his position at Kirkcaldy, and left for Edinburgh in November.[30] Shortly before his departure, he began to suffer fromdyspepsia, which remained with him throughout his life.[31] He enrolled in amineralogy class from November 1818 to April 1819, attending lectures byRobert Jameson,[32] and in January 1819 began to study German, desiring to read the mineralogical works ofAbraham Gottlob Werner.[33] In February and March, he translated a piece byJöns Jacob Berzelius,[34] and by September he was "readingGoethe".[35] In November he enrolled in "the class ofScots law", studying under the advocateDavid Hume.[36] In December 1819 and January 1820 Carlyle made his second attempt at publishing, writing a review-article onMarc-Auguste Pictet's review ofJean-Alfred Gautier'sEssai historique sur le problème des trois corps (1817), which went unpublished and is lost.[37] The law classes ended in March 1820 and he did not pursue the subject any further.[38]
In the same month he wrote several articles forDavid Brewster'sEdinburgh Encyclopædia (1808–1830), which appeared in October. These were his first published writings.[39] In May and June, Carlyle wrote a review-article on the work ofChristopher Hansteen, translated a book byFriedrich Mohs, and readGoethe'sFaust.[40] By the autumn Carlyle had also learned Italian and was readingVittorio Alfieri,Dante Alighieri andJean Charles Léonard de Sismondi,[41] although German literature was still his foremost interest, having "revealed" to him a "new Heaven and new Earth".[42] In March 1821 he finished two more articles for Brewster's encyclopaedia, and in April he completed a review ofJoanna Baillie'sMetrical Legends (1821).[43]
In May Carlyle was introduced toJane Baillie Welsh by Irving in Haddington.[44] The two began a correspondence, and Carlyle sent books to her, encouraging her intellectual pursuits; she called him "my German Master".[45]
"Conversion": Leith Walk and Hoddam Hill (1821–1826)
During this time, Carlyle struggled with what he described as "the dismallestLernean Hydra of problems, spiritual, temporal, eternal".[46] Spiritual doubt, lack of success in his endeavours, and dyspepsia were all damaging his physical and mental health, for which he found relief only in "sea-bathing". In early July 1821,[47] "during those 3 weeks of total sleeplessness, in which almost" his "one solace was that of a daily bathe on the sands between [Leith] andPortobello", an "incident" occurred inLeith Walk as he "wentdown" into the water.[48] This was the beginning of Carlyle's "Conversion", the process by which he "authentically took the Devil by the nose"[49] and flung "him behind me".[50] It gave him courage in his battle against the "Hydra"; to his brother John, he wrote, "What is there to fear, indeed?"[51]
Repentance Tower near the farm in Hoddam Hill, which Carlyle called "a fit memorial for reflecting sinners."[52]
Carlyle wrote several articles in July, August and September, and in November began a translation ofAdrien Marie Legendre'sElements of Geometry. In January 1822, Carlyle wrote "Goethe's Faust" for theNew Edinburgh Review, and shortly afterwards began a tutorship for the distinguished Buller family, tutoringCharles Buller and his brotherArthur William Buller until July; he would work for the family until July 1824. Carlyle completed the Legendre translation in July 1822, having prefixed his own essay "OnProportion", whichAugustus De Morgan later called "as good a substitute for the fifthBook of Euclid as could have been given in that space".[53]
In May 1825, Carlyle moved into a cottage farmhouse in Hoddam Hill near Ecclefechan, which his father had leased for him. Carlyle lived with his brother Alexander, who, "with a cheap little man-servant", worked on the farm, his mother with her one maid-servant, and his two youngest sisters, Jean and Jenny.[55] He had constant contact with the rest of his family, most of whom lived close by at Mainhill, a farm owned by his father.[56] Jane made a successful visit in September 1825. Whilst there, Carlyle wroteGerman Romance (1827), a translation of German novellas byJohann Karl August Musäus,Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué,Ludwig Tieck,E. T. A. Hoffmann andJean Paul. In Hoddam Hill Carlyle found respite from the "intolerable fret, noise and confusion" that he had experienced in Edinburgh, and observed what he described as "the finest and vastest prospect all round it I ever saw from any house", with "allCumberland as in amphitheatre unmatchable".[55] Here, he completed his "Conversion" which began with the Leith Walk incident. He achieved "a grand andever-joyful victory", in the "final chaining down, and trampling home, 'for good,' home into their caves forever, of all" his "Spiritual Dragons".[57] By May 1826, problems with the landlord and the agreement forced the family's relocation toScotsbrig, a farm near Ecclefechan. Later in life, he remembered the year at Hoddam Hill as "perhaps the most triumphantly important of my life."[58]
Marriage, Comely Bank and Craigenputtock (1826–1834)
In October 1826 Carlyle and Jane Welsh were married at the Welsh family farm inTempland. Shortly after their marriage, the Carlyles moved intoa modest home onComely Bank in Edinburgh, which had been leased for them by Jane's mother. They lived there from October 1826 to May 1828. In that time, Carlyle publishedGerman Romance, beganWotton Reinfred, an autobiographical novel which he left unfinished, and published his first article for theEdinburgh Review, "Jean Paul Friedrich Richter" (1827). "Richter" was the first of many essays extolling the virtues of German authors, who were then little-known to English readers; "State of German Literature" was published in October.[59] In Edinburgh, Carlyle made contact with several distinguished literary figures, including theEdinburgh Review editorFrancis Jeffrey,John Wilson ofBlackwood's Magazine, the essayistThomas De Quincey and the philosopherWilliam Hamilton.[44] In 1827 Carlyle attempted to land the Chair of Moral Philosophy at theUniversity of St Andrews without success, despite support from an array of prominent intellectuals, including Goethe.[60] He also made an unsuccessful attempt for a professorship at theUniversity of London.[44]
In May 1828 the Carlyles moved toCraigenputtock, the main house of Jane's modest agricultural estate in Dumfriesshire, which they occupied until May 1834.[61] He wrote a number of essays there which earned him money and augmented his reputation, including "Life and Writings ofWerner", "Goethe's Helena", "Goethe", "Robert Burns|Burns", "The Life ofHeyne" (each 1828), "German Playwrights", "Voltaire", "Novalis" (each 1829), "Jean Paul Friedrich Richter Again" (1830), "Cruthers and Jonson; or The Outskirts of Life: A True Story", "Luther's Psalm", and "Schiller" (each 1831). He began but did not complete a history of German literature, from which he drew material for essays "The Nibelungen Lied", "Early German Literature" and parts of "Historic Survey of German Poetry" (each 1831). He published early thoughts on the philosophy of history in "Thoughts on History" (1830) and wrote his first pieces of social criticism, "Signs of the Times" (1829) and "Characteristics" (1831).[62] "Signs" garnered the interest ofGustave d'Eichthal, a member of theSaint-Simonians, who sent Carlyle Saint-Simonian literature, includingHenri de Saint-Simon'sNouveau Christianisme (1825), which Carlyle translated and wrote an introduction for.[63]
Portrait of Carlyle byDaniel Maclise for theFraser's "Gallery of Literary Characters", June 1833
Most notably, he wroteSartor Resartus. Finishing the manuscript in late July 1831, Carlyle began his search for a publisher, leaving for London in early August.[64] He and his wife lived there for the winter at 4 (now 33) Ampton Street,Kings Cross, in a house built byThomas Cubitt.[65][66][67] The death of Carlyle's father in January 1832 and his inability to attend the funeral moved him to write the first of what would become theReminiscences, published posthumously in 1881.[68] Carlyle had not found a publisher by the time he returned to Craigenputtock in March but he had initiated important friendships withLeigh Hunt andJohn Stuart Mill. That year, Carlyle wrote the essays "Goethe's Portrait", "Death of Goethe", "Goethe's Works", "Biography", "Boswell's Life of Johnson", and "Corn-Law Rhymes". Three months after their return from a January to May 1833 stay in Edinburgh, the Carlyles were visited at Craigenputtock by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson (and other like-minded Americans) had been deeply affected by Carlyle's essays and determined to meet him during the northern terminus of a literary pilgrimage; it was to be the start of a lifelong friendship anda famous correspondence. 1833 saw the publication of the essays "Diderot" and "Count Cagliostro"; in the latter, Carlyle introduced the idea of "Captains of Industry".[69]
In June 1834 the Carlyles moved into5 Cheyne Row,Chelsea, which became their home for the remainder of their respective lives. Residence in London wrought a large expansion of Carlyle's social circle. He became acquainted with scores of leading writers, novelists, artists, radicals, men of science, Church of England clergymen, and political figures. Two of his most important friendships were withLord andLady Ashburton; though Carlyle's warm affection for the latter would eventually strain his marriage, the Ashburtons helped to broaden his social horizons, giving him access to circles of intelligence, political influence, and power.[70]
Carlyle eventually decided to publishSartor serially inFraser's Magazine, with the instalments appearing between November 1833 and August 1834. Despite early recognition from Emerson, Mill and others, it was generally received poorly, if noticed at all. In 1834, Carlyle applied unsuccessfully for the astronomy professorship at theEdinburgh observatory.[71] That autumn, he arranged for the publication of a history of theFrench Revolution and set about researching and writing it shortly thereafter. Having completed the first volume after five months of writing, he lent the manuscript to Mill, who had been supplying him with materials for his research. One evening in March 1835, Mill arrived at Carlyle's door appearing "unresponsive, pale, the very picture of despair". He had come to tell Carlyle that the manuscript was destroyed. It had been "left out", and Mill's housemaid took it for wastepaper, leaving only "some four tattered leaves". Carlyle was sympathetic: "I can be angry with no one; for they that were concerned in it have a far deeper sorrow than mine: it is purely the hand ofProvidence". The next day, Mill offered Carlyle £200 (equivalent to £25,000 in 2023),[72] of which he would only accept £100. He began the volume anew shortly afterwards. Despite an initial struggle, he was not deterred, feeling like "a runner that tho'tripped down, will not lie there, but rise and run again."[73][74] By September, the volume was rewritten. That year, he wrote a eulogy for his friend, "Death of Edward Irving".[75]
In April 1836, with the intercession of Emerson,Sartor Resartus was first published in book form in Boston, soon selling out its initial run of five hundred copies.[76][77] Carlyle's three-volume history of the French Revolution was completed in January 1837 and sent to the press.[78] Contemporaneously, the essay "Memoirs ofMirabeau" was published,[79] as was "The Diamond Necklace" in January and February,[80] and "Parliamentary History of the French Revolution" in April.[81] In need of further financial security, Carlyle began a series of lectures on German literature in May, delivered extemporaneously inWillis' Rooms.The Spectator reported that the first lecture was given "to a very crowded and yet a select audience of both sexes." Carlyle recalled being "wasted and fretted to a thread, my tongue ... dry as charcoal: the people were there, I was obliged to stumble in, and start.Ach Gott!"[82] Despite his inexperience as a lecturer and deficiency "in the mere mechanism of oratory", reviews were positive and the series proved profitable for him.[83]
During Carlyle's lecture series,The French Revolution: A History was officially published. It marked his career breakthrough. At the end of the year, Carlyle reported toKarl August Varnhagen von Ense that his earlier efforts to popularise German literature were beginning to produce results, and expressed his satisfaction: "Deutschland will reclaim her great Colony; we shall become moreDeutsch, that is to say moreEnglish, at same time."[84]The French Revolution fostered the republication ofSartor Resartus in London in 1838 as well as a collection of his earlier writings in the form of theCritical and Miscellaneous Essays, facilitated in Boston with the aid of Emerson. Carlyle presented his second lecture series in April and June 1838 on the history of literature at the Marylebone Institution inPortman Square.The Examiner reported that at the end of the second lecture, "Mr. Carlyle was heartily greeted with applause."[85] Carlyle felt that they "went on better and better, and grew at last, or threatened to grow, quite a flaming affair."[86] He published two essays in 1838, "Sir Walter Scott", being a review ofJohn Gibson Lockhart's biography, and "Varnhagen von Ense's Memoirs". In April 1839, Carlyle published "Petition on theCopyright Bill".[87] A third series of lectures was given in May on the revolutions of modern Europe, which theExaminer reviewed positively, noting after the third lecture that "Mr. Carlyle's audiences appear to increase in number every time."[88] Carlyle wrote to his mother that the lectures were met "with very kind acceptance from people more distinguished than ever; yet still with a feeling that I was far from theright lecturing point yet."[89] In July, he published "On the Sinking of theVengeur"[90] and in December he publishedChartism, a pamphlet in which he addressed themovement of the same name and raised theCondition-of-England question.[91]
In May 1840 Carlyle gave his fourth and final set of lectures, which were published in 1841 asOn Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History. Carlyle wrote to his brother John afterwards, "The Lecturing business went of [sic] with sufficientéclat; the Course was generally judged, and I rather join therein myself, to be the badbest I have yet given."[93] In the 1840 edition of theEssays, Carlyle published "Fractions", a collection of poems written from 1823 to 1833.[94] Later that year, he declined a proposal for a professorship of history at Edinburgh.[95] Carlyle was the principal founder of theLondon Library in 1841.[96] He had become frustrated by the facilities available at theBritish Museum Library, where he was often unable to find a seat (obliging him to perch on ladders), where he complained that the enforced close confinement with his fellow readers gave him a "museum headache", where the books were unavailable for loan, and where he found the library's collections of pamphlets and other material relating to the French Revolution and English Civil Wars inadequately catalogued. In particular, he developed an antipathy to the Keeper of Printed Books,Anthony Panizzi (despite the fact that Panizzi had allowed him many privileges not granted to other readers), and criticised him in a footnote to an article published in theWestminster Review as the "respectable Sub-Librarian".[97] Carlyle's eventual solution, with the support of a number of influential friends, was to call for the establishment of a privatesubscription library from which books could be borrowed.[98]
Carlyle had chosenOliver Cromwell as the subject for a book in 1840 and struggled to find what form it would take. In the interim he wrotePast and Present (1843) and the articles "Baillie theCovenanter" (1841), "Dr. Francia" (1843), and "An Election to theLong Parliament" (1844). Carlyle declined an offer for professorship from St. Andrews in 1844. The first edition ofOliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches: with Elucidations was published in 1845; it was a popular success and did much to revise Cromwell's standing in Britain.[70]
Carlyle visited Ireland in 1846 withCharles Gavan Duffy as a companion and guide, and wrote a series of brief articles on theIrish question in 1848. These were "Ireland and the British Chief Governor", "Irish Regiments (of the New Æra)", and "The Repeal of the Union", each of which offered solutions to Ireland's problems and argued to preserve England's connection with Ireland.[99] Carlyle wrote an article titled "Ireland andSir Robert Peel" (signed "C.") published in April 1849 inThe Spectator in response to two speeches given by Peel wherein he made many of the same proposals which Carlyle had earlier suggested; he called the speeches "like a prophecy of better things, inexpressibly cheering."[100] In May, he published "Indian Meal", in which he advancedmaize as a remedy to theGreat Famine as well as the worries of "disconsolateMalthusians".[101] He visited Ireland again with Duffy later that year while recording his impressions in his letters and a series of memoranda, published asReminiscences of My Irish Journey in 1849 after his death; Duffy would publish his own memoir of their travels,Conversations with Carlyle.[102]
Carlyle's travels in Ireland deeply affected his views on society, as did theRevolutions of 1848. While embracing the latter as necessary in order to cleanse society of various forms of anarchy and misgovernment, he denounced their democratic undercurrent and insisted on the need for authoritarian leaders. These events inspired his next two works, "Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question" (1849), in which he coined the term "Dismal Science" to describe political economy, andLatter-Day Pamphlets (1850). The illiberal content of these works sullied Carlyle's reputation for some progressives, while endearing him to those that shared his views. In 1851, Carlyle wroteThe Life of John Sterling as a corrective toJulius Hare's unsatisfactory 1848 biography. In late September and early October, he made his second trip to Paris, where he metAdolphe Thiers andProsper Mérimée; his account, "Excursion (Futile Enough) to Paris; Autumn 1851", was published posthumously.[103]
In 1852, Carlyle began research onFrederick the Great, whom he had expressed interest in writing a biography of as early as 1830.[104] He travelled to Germany that year, examining source documents and prior histories. Carlyle struggled through research and writing, telling von Ense it was "the poorest, most troublesome and arduous piece of work he has ever undertaken".[105] In 1856, the first two volumes ofHistory of Friedrich II. of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great were sent to the press and published in 1858. During this time, he wrote "The Opera" (1852),[106] "Project of a National Exhibition of Scottish Portraits" (1854) at the request ofDavid Laing, and "The Prinzenraub" (1855). In October 1855, he finishedThe Guises, a history of theHouse of Guise and its relation to Scottish history, which was first published in 1981.[107] Carlyle made a second expedition to Germany in 1858 to survey the topography of battlefields, which he documented inJourney to Germany, Autumn 1858, published posthumously. In May 1863, Carlyle wrote the short dialogue "Ilias (Americana) in Nuce" (AmericanIliad in a Nutshell) on the topic of theAmerican Civil War. Upon publication in August, the "Ilias" drew scornful letters fromDavid Atwood Wasson andHorace Howard Furness.[108] In the summer of 1864, Carlyle lived at 117 Marina (built byJames Burton)[109] inSt Leonards-on-Sea, in order to be nearer to his ailing wife who was in possession of caretakers there.[110]
Carlyle planned to write four volumes but had written six by the timeFrederick was finished in 1865. Before its end, Carlyle had developed a tremor in his writing hand.[111] Upon its completion, it was received as a masterpiece. He earned asobriquet, the "Sage of Chelsea",[112] and in the eyes of those that had rebuked his politics, it restored Carlyle to his position as a great man of letters.[113] Carlyle was electedLord Rector of Edinburgh University in November 1865, succeedingWilliam Ewart Gladstone and defeatingBenjamin Disraeli by a vote of 657 to 310.[114]
Carlyle travelled to Scotland to deliver his "Inaugural Address at Edinburgh" as Rector in April 1866. During his trip he was accompanied byJohn Tyndall,Thomas Henry Huxley andThomas Erskine. One of those that welcomed Carlyle on his arrival was Sir David Brewster, Principal of the university and the commissioner of Carlyle's first professional writings for theEdinburgh Encyclopædia. Carlyle was joined onstage by his fellow travellers, Brewster,Moncure D. Conway,George Harvey,Lord Neaves and others. Carlyle spoke extemporaneously on several subjects, concluding his address with a quote from Goethe: "Work, and despair not:Wir heissen euch hoffen, 'We bid you be of hope!'" Tyndall reported to Jane in a three-word telegram that it was "A perfect triumph."[115] The warm reception he received in his homeland of Scotland marked the climax of Carlyle's life as a writer. While still in Scotland, Carlyle received abrupt news of Jane's sudden death in London. Upon her death, Carlyle began to edit his wife's letters and write reminiscences of her. He experienced feelings of guilt as he read her complaints about her illnesses, his friendship with Lady Harriet Ashburton, and his devotion to his labour, particularly onFrederick the Great. Although deep in grief, Carlyle remained active in public life.[116]
Engraving depicting the Inaugural Address
Amidst controversy over GovernorJohn Eyre's violent repression of theMorant Bay rebellion, Carlyle assumed leadership of the Eyre Defence and Aid Fund in 1865 and 1866. The Defence had convened in response to the anti-EyreJamaica Committee, led by Mill and backed byCharles Darwin,Herbert Spencer and others. Carlyle and the Defence were supported byJohn Ruskin,Alfred, Lord Tennyson,Charles Dickens andCharles Kingsley.[117][118] From December 1866 to March 1867,[119] Carlyle resided at the home ofLouisa Baring, Lady Ashburton inMenton, where he wrote reminiscences of Irving, Jeffrey,Robert Southey, andWilliam Wordsworth. In August, he published "ShootingNiagara: And After?", an essay in response and opposition to theSecond Reform Bill.[120] In 1868 he wrote reminiscences ofJohn Wilson andWilliam Hamilton, and his niece Mary Aitken Carlyle moved into 5 Cheyne Row, becoming his caretaker and assisting in the editing of Jane's letters. In March 1869 he metQueen Victoria, who wrote in her journal of "Mr. Carlyle, the historian, a strange-looking eccentric old Scotchman, who holds forth, in a drawling melancholy voice, with a broad Scotch accent, upon Scotland and upon the utter degeneration of everything."[121] In 1870 he was elected President of the London Library, and in November he wrote a letter toThe Times in support of Germany in theFranco-Prussian War. His conversation was recorded by a number of friends and visitors in later years, most notablyWilliam Allingham, who became known as Carlyle'sJames Boswell.[122]
Commemoration Medal for Thomas Carlyle, front
In the spring of 1874 Carlyle accepted thePour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste fromOtto von Bismarck anddeclined Disraeli's offers of a state pension and theKnight Grand Cross in the Order of the Bath in the autumn. On the occasion of his eightieth birthday in 1875, he was presented with a commemorative medal crafted bySir Joseph Edgar Boehm and an address of admiration signed by 119 of the leading writers, scientists, and public figures of the day.[a] "Early Kings of Norway", a recounting of historical material from theIcelandic sagas transcribed by Mary acting as hisamanuensis,[123] and an essay on "The Portraits ofJohn Knox" (both 1875) were his last major writings to be published in his lifetime. In November 1876, he wrote a letter in theTimes "On theEastern Question", entreating England not to enter theRusso-Turkish War on the side of the Turks. Another letter to theTimes in May 1877 "Onthe Crisis", urging against the rumoured wish of Disraeli's to send a fleet to theBaltic Sea and warning not to provoke Russia and Europe at large into a war against England, marked his last public utterance.[124] TheAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him a Foreign Honorary Member in 1878.[125]
On 2 February 1881 Carlyle fell into a coma. For a moment he awakened, and Mary heard him speak his final words: "So this is Death—well ..."[126] He thereafter lost his speech and died on the morning of 5 February.[127] An offer of interment atWestminster Abbey, which he had anticipated, was declined by his executors in accordance with his will.[128] He was laid to rest with his mother and father in HoddamKirkyard in Ecclefechan, according to old Scottish custom.[129] His private funeral, held on 10 February, was attended by family and a few friends, including Froude, Conway, Tyndall andWilliam Lecky, as local residents looked on.[116]
Carlyle's "Seal", sketched in 1823. Its Latin motto translates: "May I be wasted so that I be of use."[130]
Carlyle's corpus spans the genres of "criticism, biography, history, politics, poetry, and religion."[131] His innovative writing style, known asCarlylese, greatly influencedVictorian literature and anticipated techniques ofpostmodern literature.[132]
Inhis philosophy, while not adhering to any formal religion, Carlyle asserted the importance of belief during an age of increasing doubt. Much of his work is concerned with the modern human spiritual condition; he was the first writer to use the expression "meaning of life".[133] InSartor Resartus and in his earlyMiscellanies, he developed his ownphilosophy of religion based upon what he called "Natural Supernaturalism",[134] the idea that all things are "Clothes" which at once reveal and conceal the divine, that "a mystic bond of brotherhood makes all men one",[135] and that duty, work and silence are essential.
Carlyle postulated theGreat Man theory, aphilosophy of history which contends that history is shaped by exceptional individuals. This approach to history was first promulgated in his lecturesOn Heroes and given specific focus in longer studies likeCromwell andFrederick the Great. He viewed history as a "Prophetic Manuscript" that progresses on acyclical basis, analogous to thephoenix and the seasons. Hishistoriographical method emphasises the relationship between the event at hand and all those which precede and follow it, which he makes apparent through use of the present (rather than past) tense in hisFrench Revolution and in other histories.
Medallion of Carlyle byThomas Woolner, 1851.James Caw said that it recalledLady Eastlake's description of him: "The head of a thinker, the eye of a lover, and the mouth of a peasant."[144]
He was then fifty-four years old; tall (about five feet eleven), thin, but at that time upright, with no signs of the later stoop. His body was angular, his face beardless, such as it is represented in Woolner's medallion,[b] which is by far the best likeness of him in the days of his strength. His head was extremely long, with the chin thrust forward; his neck was thin; the mouth firmly closed, the under lip slightly projecting; the hair grizzled and thick and bushy. His eyes, which grew lighter with age, were then of a deep violet, with fire burning at the bottom of them, which flashed out at the least excitement. The face was altogether most striking, most impressive in every way.[145]
Carlyle was a renowned conversationalist.Ralph Waldo Emerson described him as "an immense talker, as extraordinary in his conversation as in his writing,—I think even more so."Charles Darwin considered him "the most worth listening to, of any man I know."[147]William Lecky noted his "singularly musical voice" which "quite took away anything grotesque in the very strong Scotch accent" and "gave it a softening or charm".[148]Henry Fielding Dickens recollected that he was "gifted with a high sense of humour, and when he laughed he did so heartily, throwing his head back and letting himself go."[149]Thomas Wentworth Higginson remembered his "broad, honest, human laugh", one that "cleared the air like thunder, and left the atmosphere sweet."[150]Lady Eastlake called it "the best laugh I ever heard".[151]
Charles Eliot Norton wrote that Carlyle's "essential nature was solitary in its strength, its sincerity, its tenderness, its nobility. He was nearerDante than any other man."[152]Frederic Harrison similarly observed that "Carlyle walked about London like Dante in the streets ofVerona, gnawing his own heart and dreaming dreams ofInferno. To both the passers-by might have said, See! there goes the man who has seen hell".[153] Higginson rather felt thatJean Paul's humorous characterSiebenkäs "came nearer to the actual Carlyle than most of the grave portraitures yet executed", for, like Siebenkäs, Carlyle was "a satirical improvisatore".[154] Emerson saw Carlyle as "not mainly a scholar", but "a practical Scotchman, such as you would find in any saddler's or iron-dealer's shop, and then only accidentally and by a surprising addition, the admirable scholar and writer he is."[155]
Paul Elmer More found Carlyle "a figure unique, isolated, domineering—afterDr. Johnson the greatest personality in English letters, possibly even more imposing than that acknowledged dictator."[156]
It is an idle question to ask whether his books will be read a century hence: if they were all burnt as the grandest ofSuttees on his funeral pile, it would be only like cutting down an oak after its acorns have sown a forest. For there is hardly a superior or active mind of this generation that has not been modified by Carlyle's writings; there has hardly been an English book written for the last ten or twelve years that would not have been different if Carlyle had not lived.[157]
Carlyle's two most important followers wereEmerson andRuskin. In the 19th century, Emerson was often thought of as "the American Carlyle",[158] and he described himself in 1870 as "Lieutenant" to Carlyle's "General in Chief".[159] Ruskin publicly acknowledged that Carlyle was the author to whom he "owed more than to any other living writer",[160] and would frequently refer to him as his "master", writing after Carlyle's death that he was "throwing myself now into the mere fulfilment of Carlyle's work".[161]
The British philosopherJ. H. Muirhead wrote that in his rejection ofphilosophical scepticism and embrace ofGerman idealism, Carlyle "exercised an influence in England and America that no other did upon the course of philosophical thought of his time".[162]
"The most explosive impact in English literature during the nineteenth century is unquestionably Thomas Carlyle's", writesLionel Stevenson. "From about 1840 onward, no author of prose or poetry was immune from his influence."[163] By 1960 he had become "the single most frequent topic of doctoral dissertations in the field of Victorian literature".[164] While preparing for a study of his own, the German scholarGerhart von Schulze-Gävernitz found himself overwhelmed by the amount of material already written about Carlyle—in 1894.[4]
Carlyle's German essays and translations as well as his own writings were pivotal to the development of the EnglishBildungsroman.[187] His concept of symbols influenced French literarySymbolism.[188] The Victorian specialist Alice Chandler writes that the influence of his medievalism is "found throughout the literature of the Victorian age".[189]
Carlyle's influence was also felt in the negative sense.Algernon Charles Swinburne, whose comments on Carlyle throughout his writings range from high praise to scathing critique, once wrote toJohn Morley that Carlyle was "the illustrious enemy whom we all lament", reflecting a view of Carlyle as a totalising figure to be rebelled against.[190]
Carlyle's medievalist critique of industrial practice and political economy was an early utterance of what would become the spirit of both thePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and theArts and Crafts movement, and several leading members recognised his importance.[216]John William Mackail, a friend and the official biographer of William Morris, wrote that in the years of Morris andEdward Burne-Jones attendance at the University of Oxford,Past and Present stood as "inspired and absolute truth."[217] Morris read a letter from Carlyle at the first public meeting of theSociety for the Protection of Ancient Buildings.[218]Fiona MacCarthy, a recent biographer, affirmed that Morris was "deeply and lastingly" indebted to Carlyle.[219]William Holman Hunt considered Carlyle to be a mentor of his. He used Carlyle as one of the models for the head of Christ inThe Light of the World and showed great concern for Carlyle's portrayal inFord Madox Brown's paintingWork (1865).[220] Carlyle helpedThomas Woolner to find work early in his career and throughout, and he would become "a kind of surrogate son" to the Carlyles, referring to Carlyle as "the dear old philosopher".[221]Phoebe Anna Traquair depicted Carlyle, one of her favourite writers, in murals painted for theRoyal Hospital for Sick Children andSt Mary's Cathedral in Edinburgh.[222] According to Marylu Hill, theRoycrofters were "very influenced by Carlyle's words about work and the necessity of work", with his name appearing frequently in their writings, which are held atVillanova University.[223]
Thackeray wrote that Carlyle had done more than any other to give "art for art's sake ... its independence."[224] Roberts explains that Carlyle "did much to set the stage for theAesthetic Movement" through both his German and original writings, noting that he even popularised (if not introduced) the term "Æesthetics" into the English language, leading her to declare him as "the apostle of aesthetics in England, 1825–27."[225] Carlyle's rhetorical style and his views on art also provided a foundation for aestheticism, particularly that ofWalter Pater, Wilde andW. B. Yeats.[226]
"Froude besmirching Carlyle", illustration fromPunch's Almanac, 31 December 1881
Carlyle had entrusted his papers to the care ofJames Anthony Froude after his death but was unclear about the permissions granted to him. Froude edited and published theReminiscences in 1881, which sparked controversy due to Froude's failure to excise comments that might offend living persons, as was common practice at the time. The book damaged Carlyle's reputation, as did the followingLetters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle and the four-volume biography of life as written by Froude. The image that Froude presented of Carlyle and his marriage was highly negative, prompting new editions of theReminiscences and the letters byCharles Eliot Norton and Alexander Carlyle (husband of Carlyle's niece), who argued that, among other things, Froude had mishandled the materials entrusted to him in a deliberate and dishonest manner. This argument overshadowed Carlyle's work for decades.Owen Dudley Edwards remarked that by the turn of the century, "Carlyle was known more than read".[227] As Campbell describes:
The effect of Froude’s work in the years following Carlyle’s death was extraordinary. Almost overnight, it seemed, Carlyle plunged from his position as Sage of Chelsea and Grand Old Victorian to the object of puzzled dislike, or even of revulsion.[228]
Fielding writes that Carlyle "was often ready to play up to being a caricature of prejudice".[229] Targets for his ire included the French, the Irish, Slavs,[230] Turks, Americans, Catholics, and, most explicitly, blacks and Jews. According to Duffy, when he charged Carlyle with having "taught[John] Mitchel to oppose the liberation of the negroes and the emancipation of the Jews", Carlyle replied:
Mitchel ... would be found to be right in the end; the black man could not be emancipated from the laws of nature, which had pronounced a very decided decree on the question, and neither could the Jew.[231]
In his biography of Carlyle, Fred Kaplan suggests that Carlyle "resembled most of his contemporaries" in his beliefs about Jews, identifying them with capitalist materialism and outmoded religious orthodoxy.[232][233] Throughout the late 1840s, Carlyle privately pondered the need for England to make an "Exodus from Houndsditch", and to discard "Hebrew Old-Clothes" in religion. In June 1861, Charles Dickens reported to William Macready that "Carlyle has greatly intensified his aversion to Jews, and is greatly enraged by beholding the gradual rise of a Mansion that Rothschild is building next the Duke of Wellington's." Dickens recounted Carlyle's vision of Queen Victoria summoning Rothschild before her and threatening to pull the teeth out of his "Mosaic head" unless he repaid his "millions of ill gotten Money".[234] Carlyle had once considered writing a book calledExodus fromHoundsditch,[c] "a pealing off of fetidJewhood in every sense from myself and my poor bewildered brethren".[235] Froude described Carlyle's aversion to the Jews as "Teutonic". He felt they had contributed nothing to the "wealth" of mankind, contrasting "the Jews with their morbid imaginations and foolish sheepskinTargums" with "The Norse with their steel swords guided by fresh valiant hearts and clear veracious understanding".[236][237] Carlyle refused an invitation byBaron Rothschild in 1848 to support a Bill in Parliament to allowvoting rights for Jews in the United Kingdom, askingRichard Monckton Milnes in a correspondence how a Jew could "try to be Senator, or even Citizen, of any Country, except his own wretched Palestine", and expressed his hope that they would "arrive" in Palestine "as soon as possible".[238]
Carlyle argued thatslavery was preferable tolaissez-faire capitalism.[203] Henry Crabb Robinson heard Carlyle at dinner in 1837 speak approvingly of slavery. "It is a natural aristocracy, that ofcolour, and quite right that the stronger and better race should have dominion!"[239] The 1853 pamphlet "Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question" expressed concern for the excesses of the practice, considering "How to abolish the abuses of slavery, and save the precious thing in it."[240] Carlyle's defences of slavery contributed to his enduring popularity among pro-slavery figures of theantebellum South.[203] But liberals in Britain and the American North disputed such arguments, and among the objectors was the abolitionist Mill, in the anonymous essay "The Negro Question".[241]
In the modern era, the London Library has removed its bust of Carlyle from public display, and states that "Carlyle's racist views are completely unacceptable and the London Library does not share them."[242]
From Goethe's recognition of Carlyle as "a moral force of great importance" in 1827 to the celebration of his centennial as though he were a national hero in 1895, Carlyle had long enjoyed a high reputation in Germany.[243] Passages fromFrederick were even part of the curriculum in German schools. Carlyle's support of Bismarck and theSilesian Wars led to suspicion during the First World War that he would have supported theGerman Empire and its leaders (such asTheobald von Bethmann Hollweg andGottlieb von Jagow).Allied nations largely regarded Carlyle as aPrussianist, the "spiritual brother ofClausewitz and Treitschke." Prussian statesmen had identified Carlyle's "gospel of force" with their doctrine ofWeltmacht oder Untergang (World Power or Downfall) in order to "make their own side respectable." Herbert L. Stewart defended Carlyle's memory by arguing that besides a shared opposition to democracy, his belief that "Right makes Might"[d] is "far removed" from "the ethic ofmilitarism", and his "PuritanTheodicy" has nothing to do with the "Immoralism of GermanKriegsherren" (Warlords).[245]
Withthe rise ofAdolf Hitler, many agreed with the assessment of K. O. Schmidt in 1933, who came to see Carlyle asden ersten englischen Nationalsozialisten (the first EnglishNational Socialist).William Joyce (founder of theNational Socialist League and the Carlyle Club, a cultural arm of the NSL named for Carlyle)[246] wrote of how "Germany has repaid him for his scholarship on her behalf by honouring his philosophy when it is scorned in Britain."[247] German academics viewed him as having been immersed in and an outgrowth of German culture, just as National Socialism was. They proposed thatHeroes and Hero-Worship justified theFührerprinzip (Leadership principle). Theodor Jost wrote in 1935: "Carlyle established, in fact, the mission of the Führer historically and philosophically. He fights, himself a Führer, vigorously against the masses, he ... becomes a pathfinder for new thoughts and forms." Parallels were also drawn between Carlyle's critique of Victorian England inLatter-Day Pamphlets and Nazi opposition to theWeimar Republic.[243]
Some believed that Carlyle was German by blood. EchoingPaul Hensel's earlier claim in 1901 that Carlyle'sVolkscharakter (Folk character) had preserved "the peculiarity of theLow German tribe",Egon Friedell, an anti-Nazi and Jewish Austrian, explained in 1935 that Carlyle's affinity with Germany stemmed from his being "a Scotsman of thelowlands, where theCeltic imprint is far more marginal than it is with theHigh Scottish and the Low German element is even stronger than it is in England."[248] Others regarded him, if not ethnically German, as aGeist von unserem Geist (Spirit from our Spirit), as Karl Richter wrote in 1937: "Carlyle'sethos is the ethos of theNordic soul par excellence."[249]
In 1945Joseph Goebbels frequently sought consolation from Carlyle'sHistory ofFrederick the Great. Goebbels read passages from the book to Hitler during his last days in theFührerbunker in theBattle of Berlin.[250] While some Germans were eager to claim Carlyle for the Reich, others were more aware of incompatibilities. In 1936 Theodor Deimel argued that because of the "profound difference" between Carlyle's philosophical foundation of "a personally shaped religious idea" and theVölkisch foundation of National Socialism, the designation of Carlyle as the "first National Socialist" is "mistaken".[251]Ernst Cassirer rejected the notion of Carlyle as proto-fascist inThe Myth of the State (1946), emphasizing the moral underpinning of his thought. G. B. Tennyson has also commented that Carlyle's anti-modernist and anti-egoist stances disqualify him from association with 20th-centurytotalitarianism.[252]
The standard edition of Carlyle's works is theWorks in Thirty Volumes, also known as theCentenary Edition. The date given is when the work was "originally published."
This is a list of selected books, pamphlets and broadsides uncollected in theMiscellanies through 1880 as well as posthumous first editions and unpublished manuscripts.[253]
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1886).Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
Thomas Carlyle's Counsels to a Literary Aspirant: A Hitherto Unpublished Letter of 1842 and What Came of Them (1886). Edinburgh:James Thin, South Bridge.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887).Reminiscences. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887).Correspondence Between Goethe and Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1888).Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London and New York: Macmillan and Co.
Thomas Carlyle on the Repeal of the Union (1889). London: Field & Tuer, theLeadenhall Press.
Newberry, Percy, ed. (1892).Rescued Essays of Thomas Carlyle. The Leadenhall Press.
Last Words of Thomas Carlyle (1892). London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
Karkaria, R. P., ed. (1892).Lectures on the History of Literature. London: Curwen, Kane & Co.
Greene, J. Reay, ed. (1892).Lectures on the History of Literature. London: Ellis and Elvey.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1898).Historical Sketches of Notable Persons and Events in the Reigns of James I and Charles I. London: Chapman and Hall Limited.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1898).Two Note Books of Thomas Carlyle. New York:The Grolier Club.
Copeland, Charles Townsend, ed. (1899).Letters of Thomas Carlyle to His Youngest Sister. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Jones, Samuel Arthur, ed. (1903).Collecteana. Canton, Pennsylvania: The Kirgate Press.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1904).New Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London: The Bodley Head.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1909).The Love Letters of Thomas Carlyle and Jane Welsh. 2 vols. London: The Bodley Head.
Tarr, Rodger L.; McClelland, Fleming, eds. (1986).The Collected Poems of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. Greenwood, Florida: The Penkevill Publishing Company.
Hubbard, Tom (2005), "Carlyle, France and Germany in 1870", in Hubbard, Tom (2022),Invitation to the Voyage: Scotland, Europe and Literature, Rymour, pp. 44–46,ISBN978-1739596002
Sanders, Charles Richard; Fielding, Kenneth J.; Ryals, Clyde de L.; Campbell, Ian; Christianson, Aileen; Clubbe, John; McIntosh, Sheila; Smith, Hilary; Sorensen, David, eds. (1970–2022).The Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle.Durham, North Carolina:Duke University Press.
Sorensen, David R.; Kinser, Brent E., eds. (2023).Past and Present. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198841081.
Sorensen, David R.; Kinser, Brent E.; Engel, Mark, eds. (2019).The French Revolution. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The Norman and Charlotte Strouse Edition of the Writings of Thomas Carlyle. 8 vols. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1993–2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
Lea, F. A. (2017) [1943].Carlyle: Prophet of To-day. Routledge Library Editions: Social and Political Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Vol. 2. Routledge.doi:10.4324/9781315563640.ISBN978-1315563640.
Mendilow, Jonathan (1984). "Carlyle, Marx & the ILP: Alternative Routes to Socialism".Polity.17 (2). The University of Chicago Press:225–247.doi:10.2307/3234506.JSTOR3234506.S2CID147550498.
Moore, Carlisle (1957)."Thomas Carlyle". In Houtchens, Carolyn Washburn; Houtchens, Lawrence Huston (eds.).The English Romantic Poets & Essayists: A Review of Research and Criticism (Revised ed.). New York: New York University Press (published 1966).
Norman, Edward (1987).The Victorian Christian Socialists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^For the letter, written byJohn Morley andDavid Masson, and list of signatories, seeNew Letters of Thomas Carlyle, edited by Alexander Carlyle, vol. II, pp. 323–324.
^Houndsditch is a mercantile district in theEast End of London that was associated with Jewish merchants of used clothing.
^In his journal, Carlyle wrote that "right is the eternal symbol of might", and described himself thus: "never [was there] a son ofAdam more contemptuous of might except where it rests on the above origin."[244]
^"The Great Hall in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery".National Galleries of Scotland. Retrieved7 August 2022.The procession starts with the author and historian Thomas Carlyle, who played a significant role in the establishment of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, and the National Portrait Gallery in London.
^"Among these humble, stern, earnest religionists of the Burgher phase of Dissent Thomas Carlyle was born." – Sloan, John MacGavin (1904).The Carlyle Country, with a Study of Carlyle's Life. London: Chapman & Hall, p. 40.
^Wells, John (1991).Rude Words: a discursive history of the London Library. London: Macmillan. pp. 12–56.ISBN978-0333475195.
^Seigel, Jules. "Carlyle and Peel: The Prophet’s Search for a Heroic Politician and an Unpublished Fragment".Victorian Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, 1983, pp. 181–195,JSTOR3827005. Accessed 13 April 2022.
^Trella, D. J. (1992). "Carlyle's 'Shooting Niagara': The Writing and Revising of an Article and Pamphlet",Victorian Periodicals Review25 (1), pp. 30–34.
^Weintraub, Stanley (1987).Victoria: An Intimate Biography. New York: Dutton. p. 352.ISBN978-0525244691.
^Norton, Sara;Howe, M. A. DeWolfe, eds. (1913). "To John Ruskin, Shady Hill, April 3, 1883".Letters of Charles Eliot Norton. Vol. II. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 147.
^Harrison, Frederic.The Choice of Books, and Other Literary Pieces. London: Macmillan, 1912. pp. 180–181.
^Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1881). "XVIII. Carlyle".The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Vol. X. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company (published 1904).
^Cook, E. T.; Wedderburn, Alexander, eds. (1904)."Appendix to Part II".Lectures on Architecture and Painting (Edinburgh, 1853) with Other Papers (1844–1854). The Works of John Ruskin. Vol. XII. London: George Allen. p. 507.
^Cook, E. T.; Wedderburn, Alexander, eds. (1909)."Carlyle's Work".The Letters of John Ruskin (1870–1899). The Works of John Ruskin. Vol. XXXVII. London: George Allen. p. 345.
^Muirhead, John H. (1931).The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 127.
^Altman, Matthew C."Carlyle, Thomas (1795–1881)".The Walt Whitman Archive. Retrieved1 July 2022. General editors Matt Cohen, Ed Folsom & Kenneth M. Price.
^Ali, Syed Ashraf (16 August 2010)."Gandhi and Islam".IslamiCity. Retrieved13 July 2022.
^Wagner, Richard (1993).The Art-Work of the Future and Other Works. Translated byEllis, William Ashton. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. p. 29.
^Hamington, Maurice (2022),"Jane Addams", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved9 August 2022
^Dickerson, V. D. (2010).Dark Victorians. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. p. 92.
^Kaplan, Fred (1993).Thomas Carlyle: A Biography.University of California Press.ISBN978-0520082007.Carlyle's active anti-Semitism was based primarily upon his identification of Jews with materialism and with an anachronistic religious structure. He was repelled by those 'old clothes' merchants ... by 'East End' orthodoxy, and by 'West End' Jewish wealth, merchants clothed in new money who seemed to epitomise the intense material corruption of Western society.
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