Music historians typically divide the history of ska into three periods: the original Jamaican scene of the 1960s; the2 tone ska revival of the late 1970s in Britain, which fused Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies with the faster tempos and harder edge ofpunk rock formingska-punk; andthird-wave ska, which involved bands from a wide range of countries around the world, in the late 1980s and 1990s.[7]
There are multiple theories about the origins of the wordska.Ernest Ranglin claimed that the term was coined by musicians to refer to the "skat! skat! skat!" scratching guitar strum.[8] Another explanation is that at a recording session in 1959 produced byCoxsone Dodd, double bassistCluett Johnson instructed guitarist Ranglin to "play like ska, ska, ska", although Ranglin has denied this, stating "Clue couldn't tell me what to play!"[9] A further theory is that it derives from Johnson's wordskavoovie, with which he was known to greet his friends.[10]Jackie Mittoo insisted that the musicians called the rhythmStaya Staya, and that it wasByron Lee who introduced the term "ska".[11]Derrick Morgan said: "Guitar and piano making a ska sound, like 'ska, ska".[12]
As the supply of previously unheard tunes in thejump blues and more traditional R&B genres began to dry up in the late 1950s, Jamaican producers began recording their own version of the genres with local artists.[2] These recordings were initially made to be played on "soft wax" (a lacquer on metal disc acetate later to become known as a "dub plate"), but as demand for them grew eventually sometime in the second half of 1959 (believed by most to be in the last quarter) producers such as Coxsone Dodd and Duke Reid began to issue these recordings on 45 rpm 7-inch discs. At this point, the style was a direct copy of the American "shuffle blues" style, but within two or three years it had morphed into the more familiar ska style with the off-beat guitar chop that could be heard in some of the more uptempo late-1950s American rhythm and blues recordings such as Domino's "Be My Guest" and Barbie Gaye's "My Boy Lollypop", both of which were popular on Jamaicansound systems of the late 1950s.[17] Domino's rhythm, accentuating the offbeat, was a particular influence.[18]
This "classic" ska style was of bars made up of four triplets but was characterized by aguitar chop on theoff beat—known as an upstroke or 'skank'—with horns taking the lead and often following the off-beat skank and piano emphasizing the bass line and, again, playing the skank.[1] Drums kept4 4 time and the bass drum was accented on the third beat of each four-triplet phrase. The snare would play side stick and accent the third beat of each 4-triplet phrase.[1] The upstroke sound can also be found in otherCaribbean forms of music, such asmento andcalypso.[19]Ernest Ranglin asserted that the difference between R&B and ska beats is that the former goes "chink-ka" and the latter goes "ka-chink".[12]
The Jamaican ska outfitthe Skatalites recorded "Dynamite", "Ringo" and "Guns of Navarone".[20] One theory about the origin of ska is that Prince Buster created it during the inaugural recording session for his new record label Wild Bells.[19] The session was financed by Duke Reid, who was supposed to get half of the songs to release. The guitar began emphasizing the second and fourth beats in the bar, giving rise to the new sound. The drums were taken from traditional Jamaican drumming and marching styles. To create the ska beat, Prince Buster essentially flipped the R&B shuffle beat, stressing the offbeats with the help of the guitar. Prince Buster has explicitly cited American rhythm and blues as the origin of ska: specifically,Willis Jackson's song "Later for the Gator" (which was Coxsone Dodd's number one selection).
The first ska recordings were created at facilities such asFederal Records,Studio One, and WIRL Records inKingston, Jamaica with producers such as Dodd, Reid, Prince Buster, andEdward Seaga.[19] The ska sound coincided with the celebratory feelings surrounding Jamaica's independence from the UK in 1962; an event commemorated by songs such asDerrick Morgan's "Forward March" andthe Skatalites' "Freedom Sound".
Until Jamaica ratified theBerne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the country did not honor international musiccopyright protection. This created many cover songs and reinterpretations. One such cover wasMillie Small's version of the R&B/shuffle tune, "My Boy Lollypop", first recorded in New York in 1956 by 14-year-oldBarbie Gaye.[21][22] Small's rhythmically similar version, released in 1964, was Jamaica's first commercially successful international hit. With over seven million copies sold, it remains one of the best selling reggae/ska songs of all time. Many other Jamaican artists would have success recording instrumental ska versions of popular American and British music, such asBeatles songs,Motown andAtlanticsoul hits,movie theme songs and instrumentals (007, Guns of Navarone).The Wailers covered the Beatles' "And I Love Her", and radically reinterpretedBob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone". They also created their own versions of Latin-influenced music from artists such asMongo Santamaría.[23] The Skatalites,Lord Creator,Laurel Aitken, Roland Alphonso,Tommy McCook,Jackie Mittoo,Desmond Dekker, andDon Drummond[24] also recorded ska.
Byron Lee & the Dragonaires performed ska with Prince Buster,Eric "Monty" Morris, andJimmy Cliff at the1964 New York World's Fair. As music changed in the United States, so did ska. In 1965 and 1966, when American soul music became slower and smoother, ska changed its sound accordingly and evolved intorocksteady.[19][25] However, rocksteady's heyday was brief, peaking in 1967. By 1968, ska evolved again into reggae.
The2 tone genre, which began in the late 1970s in theCoventry area of UK, was a fusion of Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies withpunk rock's more aggressive guitar chords and lyrics.[25] Compared to 1960s ska, 2 tone music had faster tempos, fuller instrumentation, and a harder edge. The genre was named after2 Tone Records, a record label founded byJerry Dammers ofthe Specials. In many cases, the reworking of classic ska songs turned the originals into hits again in the United Kingdom. The Specials recorded "A Message to You Rudy" in 1979, featuringRico Rodriguez, who played trombone on both the original Dandy Livingstone recording and the Specials' version.
The 2 tone movement promoted racial unity at a time when racial tensions were high in England. There were many Specials songs that raised awareness of the issues of racism, fighting and friendship. Riots in English cities were a feature during the summer that the Specials song "Ghost Town" was a hit, although this work was in a slower, reggae beat. Most of the 2 tone bands had multiracial lineups, such asthe Beat (known as the English Beat inNorth America and Australia),the Specials, andthe Selecter.[1] Although only on the 2 tone label for one single,Madness was one of the most effective bands at bringing the 2 tone genre into the mainstream, with hits such as "One Step Beyond", "Night Boat to Cairo", and "Our House". The music of this era resonated with white working class youth and West Indian immigrants who experienced the struggles addressed in the lyrics.[23]
Ska historian Albino Brown (of the radio programThe Ska Parade) coined the termthird-wave ska in 1989 and helped to catalyze such multi-platinum bands asNo Doubt andSublime.[26] Third-wave ska originated in the punk scene in the late 1980s and became commercially successful in the 1990s.[27] Although some third-wave ska has a traditional 1960s sound, most third-wave ska is characterized by dominating guitar riffs and large horn sections.
The early 1980s saw a massive surge in ska's popularity in Germany, leading to the founding of many German ska bands like the Busters, record labels and festivals.[29][32]
In Spain, ska gained relevance in the 80s, first in some songs by groups likeEjecutivos agresivos andLos Cardiacos, but where it really gained strength was in theBasque Country due to the influence ofBasque Radical Rock, withKortatu and Potato being the most representatives bands.[according to whom?]Skalariak andBetagarri followed in the early 1990s and their influence is visible outside the Basque Country in punk-rock bands likeSka-P,Boikot and many others that have gained importance in the Spanish rock and punk rock scene and festivals.[citation needed]
TheAustralian ska scene flourished in the mid-1980s, following the musical precedents set by 2 tone, and spearheaded by bands such asthe Porkers.[33] Some of the Australian ska revival bands found success on the national music charts, most notablyAllniters, who had a number 10 hit with a ska cover of "Montego Bay" in 1983.[34] The 30 pieceMelbourne Ska Orchestra has enjoyed success in recent years, touring internationally, including sets atGlastonbury andMontreux Jazz Festival.[35]
Japan established its own ska scene, colloquially referred to asJ-ska, in the mid-1980s.[36][37] TheTokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra, formed in 1985, have been one of the most commercially successful progenitors of Japanese ska.[38]
Latin America's ska scene started developing in the mid-1980s. Latin American ska bands typically play traditional ska rhythms blended with strong influences from Latin music androck en Español.[39] The most prominent bands include the Grammy nominatedDesorden Público from Venezuela[40] and Grammy awardedLos Fabulosos Cadillacs from Argentina, who scored an international hit single with "El Matador" in 1994.[41]
By the early 1980s, 2 tone–influenced ska bands began forming throughout the United States.[25]The Uptones fromBerkeley, California, andthe Toasters fromNew York City—both formed in 1981—were among the first active ska bands in North America. They are both credited with laying the groundwork for American ska and establishing scenes in their respective regions.[7][42][43] In Los Angeles around the same time,the Untouchables also formed. While many of the early American ska bands continued in the musical traditions set by 2 tone and themod revival, bands such asFishbone,the Mighty Mighty Bosstones andOperation Ivy pioneered the Americanska punk subgenre, afusion of ska andpunk rock that typically downplayed ska's R&B influence in favor of fastertempos and guitardistortion.[25][44] In 1986,No Doubt, a ska punk band was formed. They were one of the more mainstream ska bands that set the stage for many up and coming bands.
Two hotspots for the United States' burgeoning ska scenes were New York City andOrange County, California. In New York, Toasters frontmanRobert "Bucket" Hingley formed the independent record labelMoon Ska Records in 1983. The label quickly became the largest independent ska label in the United States.[45] TheOrange County ska scene was a major breeding ground for ska punk and more contemporary pop-influenced ska music, personified by bands such asReel Big Fish andSublime.[46] It was here that the termthird-wave ska was coined and popularized by Albino Brown and Tazy Phyllipz (hosts of theSka Parade radio show) to describe the new wave of ska-influenced bands which were steadily gaining notoriety; and Brown wrote the first treatise on ska's third wave in 1994.[47][48][49] TheSan Francisco Bay Area also contributed to ska's growing popularity, withSkankin' Pickle,Let's Go Bowling and theDance Hall Crashers becoming known on the touring circuit.
The mid-1990s saw a considerable rise in ska music's underground popularity, marked by the formation of many ska-based record labels, booking organizations and indiezines. While Moon Ska was still the largest of the United States' ska labels, other notable labels included Jump Up Records ofChicago, which covered the thrivingmidwest scene, and Steady Beat Recordings ofLos Angeles, which covered Southern California's traditional ska revival.Stomp Records ofMontreal was Canada's primary producer and distributor of ska music.[50] Additionally, many punk and indie rock labels, such asHellcat Records andFueled by Ramen, broadened their scope to include both ska and ska punk bands.Asian Man Records (formerlyDill Records), founded in 1996, started out primarily releasing ska punk albums before branching out to other music styles.[51]
In 1993, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones signed withMercury Records, becoming the first American ska punk band to find mainstream commercial success, with their 1994 albumQuestion the Answers achievinggold record status and peaking at number 138 on theBillboard 200.[52] In 1995, punk bandRancid, featuring former members of Operation Ivy, released the ska punk single "Time Bomb", which reached number 8 on theBillboard Modern Rock Tracks, becoming the first major ska punk hit of the 1990s and launching the genre into the public eye.[53] Over the next few years, a string of notable ska and ska-influenced singles became hits on mainstream radio, including "Sell Out" by Reel Big Fish and "The Impression That I Get" by the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, all of whom would reach platinum status with each of their respective albums. By 1996, third-wave ska was one of the most popular forms ofalternative music in the United States.[53]
By the late 1990s, mainstream interest in third-wave ska bands waned as other music genres gained momentum.[54] Moon Ska Records folded in 2000, but Moon Ska Europe, a licensed affiliate based in Europe, continued operating in the 2000s and was later relaunched asMoon Ska World. In 2003, Hingley launched a new ska record label,Megalith Records.
In the early 21st century, ska was mostly absent from the radio, though there were exceptions.[55] In 2017,Captain SKA reached number 4 on theUK Singles Chart with "Liar Liar GE2017". In 2018,the Interrupters broke into the U.S. charts with their single "She's Kerosene". By 2019, several publications started speculating about whether a "fourth wave" of ska was about to emerge.[56][57]
The term New Tone to describe a fourth wave of ska has started to pick up traction. The term New Tone originates from new ska band Bad Operation, to describe their two-tone sound and their city of New Orleans.[58] The term has been popularized by the record label Bad Time Records due to their movie This Is New Tone.[59] New Tone now has a vague definition and is used to describe the modern ska scene in general.[60]
^abSelvin, Joel (23 March 2008)."A brief history of ska".San Francisco Chronicle.Archived from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved28 October 2011.
^White, Timothy (1983) "Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley", Corgi Books
^Thompson, Dave (2002) "Reggae & Caribbean Music", Backbeat Books,ISBN0-87930-655-6
^Boot, Adrian & Salewicz, Chris (1995) "Bob Marley: Songs of Freedom", Bloomsbury
^Clarke, Sebastien "Jah Music: the Evolution of the Popular Jamaican Song"
^Kauppila, Paul. "From Memphis to Kingston: An Investigation into the Origin of Jamaican Ska" Social and Economic Studies. SJSU Scholarsorks (2006): 75-91.
^Gulla, Bob (1997)."Three Waves Of Ska".Guitar Magazine.15 (published December 1997): 39.Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved8 January 2017.
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