By agreement reached at thePeace of Venice in 1177 the bitter conflict between Alexander III andEmperor Frederick I was brought to an end. WhenPope Adrian IV died in 1159, the dividedcardinals elected two popes: Roland of Siena, who took the name of Alexander III, and Octavian of Rome who, though nominated by fewer cardinals, was supported by Frederick and assumed the name ofPope Victor IV.[1] Frederick, wishing to remove all that stood in the way of his authority in Italy, declared war upon the Italian states and especially the Church which was enjoying great authority. A serious schism arose out of this conflict, and after Victor IV's death in 1164, two furtherantipopes were nominated in opposition to Alexander III:Paschal III (1164–1168) andCallistus III (1168–1178). Eventually, at the Peace of Venice, when Alexander gained victory, he promised Frederick that he would summon an ecumenical council.
Besides removing the remains of the recentschism, the Council condemned theCatharheresies and pushed for the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline. It also became the first general Council of the Church tolegislate againstsodomy. Three sessions were held, on 5, 14, and 19 March, in which 27canons were promulgated.
The most important of these were:
Canon 1. In order to prevent the possibility of future schisms, onlycardinals were to possess the right to elect apope. In addition a two-thirds majority was to be required in order for the election to be valid. If any candidate should declare himself pope without receiving the required majority, he and his supporters were to beexcommunicated.
Canon 11 forbade clerics to have women in their houses or to visit themonasteries of nuns without a good reason; declared that married clergy should lose their benefices; and decreed that priests who engaged in "that unnatural vice for which the wrath of God came down upon the sons of disobedience and destroyed the five cities with fire" (sodomy)[2][3] should be deposed from clerical office and required to do penance—while laymen should beexcommunicated.
Canon 18 required every cathedral church to appoint a master to teach the clerics and the poor scholars of the church; this action helped launch the cathedral schools that later became universities.[4] It also regulated the license to teach (licentia docendi), stating "let no one demand any money for a licence to teach, or under cover of some custom seek anything from teachers, or forbid anyone to teach who is suitable and has sought a licence." Selling the license to teach could prevent the progress of churches.[5]
Canon 19 declared excommunication for those who tried to tax churches and clergy without the consent of the bishop.
Canon 23 concerns the proper organisation of accommodation for lepers.
Canon 26 forbade Jews and Muslims from having Christian servants and states that the evidence of Christians is always to be accepted against Jews. It also excommunicates any Christian who lives with a Jew or Muslim.
Canon 27 stressed the duty of princes to repressheresy and condemned "the Brabantians, Aragonese, Basques, Navarrese, and others who practice such cruelty toward Christians that they respect neither churches nor monasteries, spare neither widows nor orphans, neither age nor sex, but after the manner of pagans, destroy and lay waste everything" (De Brabantionibus et Aragonensibus, Navariis, Bascolis, Coterellis et Triaverdinis, qui tantam in Christianos immanitatem exercent, ut nec ecclesiis, nec monasteriis deferant, non viduis, et pupillis, non senibus, et pueris, nec cuilibet parcant aetati, aut sexui, sed more paganorum omnia perdant, et vastent).[6]
Archbishop-electBerthold of Bremen attended, expecting to have his election confirmed although he had not takenmajor orders. His presence was resented by the other archbishops and the lobbying of DukeHenry the Lion of Saxony succeeded in getting his election quashed. His former teacher,Girard la Pucelle, spoke unavailingly in his defence.[9][10]
Due to the 26th canon forbidding Christians from dwelling among Jews and Muslims,segregation laws were occasionally enforced by European governments against Jews, creating Jewish quarters. Later inVenice, the termghetto was born from a segregated Jewish quarter.[11]
^*Udvardy, József (1991).A kalocsai érsekek életrajza (1000–1526)[Biographies of Archbishops of Kalocsa, 1000–1526] (in Hungarian).Görres Gesellschaft. p. 75.
^Arnaud Hari (2010),Écrire l'histoire des évêques de Metz au Moyen Âge: les Gesta episcorum de la fin du VIIIe à la fin du XIVe siècle (PhD diss.),Paul Verlaine University – Metz, 2 vols., atvol. 2, pp. 463–465.
^John B. Freed (2016),Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth, Yale University Press, pp. 396–397.
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