This article is about the study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs. For Sinéad O'Connor's album, seeTheology (album). For the academic journal, seeTheology (journal).
Theology is the study ofreligious belief from areligious perspective, with a focus on the nature ofdivinity. It is taught as anacademic discipline, typically in universities andseminaries.[1] It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing thesupernatural, but also deals withreligious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question ofrevelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance ofGod,gods, ordeities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind.
The study of theology may help a theologian more deeply understand their ownreligious tradition,[2] another religious tradition,[3] or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity without reference to any specific tradition. Theology may be used topropagate,[4] reform,[5] orjustify a religious tradition; or it may be used tocompare,[6] challenge (e.g.biblical criticism), or oppose (e.g.irreligion) a religious tradition orworldview. Theology might also help a theologian address some present situation or need through a religious tradition,[7] or to explore possible ways of interpreting the world.[8]
The term "theology" derives from theGreektheologia (θεολογία), a combination oftheos (Θεός, 'god') andlogia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings,oracles')—the latter word relating to Greeklogos (λόγος, 'word,discourse, account,reasoning').[9][10] The term would pass on to Latin astheologia, then French asthéologie, eventually becoming the Englishtheology.
Through several variants (e.g.,theologie,teologye), the Englishtheology had evolved into its current form by 1362.[11] The sense that the word has in English depends in large part on the sense that the Latin and Greek equivalents had acquired inpatristic andmedieval Christian usage although the English term has now spread beyond Christian contexts.
Greektheologia (θεολογία) was used with the meaning 'discourse on God' around 380 BC byPlato inThe Republic.[12]Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy intomathematike,physike, andtheologike, with the latter corresponding roughly tometaphysics, which, for Aristotle, included discourse on the nature of the divine.[13]
Drawing on GreekStoic sources, theLatin writerVarro distinguished three forms of such discourse:[14]
Some Latin Christian authors, such asTertullian andAugustine, followed Varro's threefold usage.[14][15] However, Augustine also definedtheologia as "reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity".[16]
The Latin authorBoethius, writing in the early 6th century, usedtheologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality; as opposed tophysica, which deals withcorporeal, moving realities.[17] Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage.[18]
Inpatristic Greek Christian sources,theologia could refer narrowly to devout and/or inspired knowledge of and teaching about the essential nature of God.[19]
Inscholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of thedoctrines of theChristian religion, or (more precisely) the academicdiscipline that investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented inPeter Lombard'sSentences, a book of extracts from theChurch Fathers).[citation needed]
In theRenaissance, especially with Florentine Platonist apologists ofDante's poetics, the distinction between 'poetic theology' (theologia poetica) and 'revealed' orBiblical theology serves as stepping stone for a revival of philosophy as independent of theological authority.[citation needed]
It is in the last sense, theology as an academic discipline involving rational study of Christian teaching, that the term passed into English in the 14th century,[20] although it could also be used in the narrower sense found in Boethius and the Greek patristic authors, to mean rational study of the essential nature of God, a discourse now sometimes calledtheology proper.[21]
From the 17th century onwards, the termtheology began to be used to refer to the study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian or correlated with Christianity (e.g., in the termnatural theology, which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation)[22] or that are specific to another religion (such as below).
Theology can also be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology".[23][24]
The termtheology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study ofreligions that worship a supposeddeity (atheos), i.e. more widely thanmonotheism; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak andreason about this deity (inlogia). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically).Hierology has been proposed, by such people asEugène Goblet d'Alviella (1908), as an alternative, more generic term.[25]
As defined byThomas Aquinas, theology is constituted by a triple aspect: what is taught by God, teaches of God, and leads to God (Latin:Theologia a Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducit).[26] This indicates the three distinct areas of God astheophanicrevelation, the systematic study of the nature ofdivine and, more generally, ofreligious belief, and thespiritual path. Christian theology as the study of Christian belief and practice concentrates primarily upon the texts of theOld Testament and theNew Testament as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian better understand Christian tenets, to make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions, to defend Christianity against objections and criticism, to facilitate reforms in the Christian church, to assist in the propagation of Christianity, to draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons.
Islamic theological discussion that parallels Christian theological discussion is calledKalam; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration ofSharia orFiqh.[27]
Kalam...does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for 'theology' in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam.
— translated by L. Gardet
Some Universities in Germany established departments of islamic theology. (i.e.[28])
In Jewish theology, the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community andsynagogue, including throughrabbinical discussion ofJewish law andMidrash (rabbinic biblical commentaries). Jewish theology is also linked toethics, as it is the case with theology in other religions, and therefore has implications for how one behaves.[29][30]
Some academic inquiries withinBuddhism, dedicated to the investigation of a Buddhist understanding of the world, prefer the designationBuddhist philosophy to the termBuddhist theology, since Buddhismlacks the same conception of atheos or a Creator God. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use oftheology is in fact appropriate, can only do so, he says, because "I take theology not to be restricted to discourse on God.... I take 'theology' not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God."[31]
Whatever the case, there are various Buddhist theories and discussions on the nature ofBuddhahood and theultimate reality / highest form ofdivinity, which has been termed "buddhology" by some scholars likeLouis de La Vallée-Poussin.[32] This is a different usage of the term than when it is taken to mean theacademic study of Buddhism, and here would refer to the study of the nature of what a Buddha is. InMahayana Buddhism, a central concept in its buddhology is the doctrine of the three Buddha bodies (Sanskrit:Trikāya).[32] This doctrine is shared by all Mahayana Buddhist traditions.
WithinHindu philosophy, there are numerous traditions of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termedBrahman,Paramatma,Ishvara, and/orBhagavan in some schools of Hindu thought) and of theātman (soul). TheSanskrit word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy isdarśana ('view, viewpoint'), the most influential one in terms of modern Hindu religion isVedanta and its various sub-schools, each of which presents a different theory ofIshvara (the Supreme lord, God).
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars inIndia for centuries. A large part of its study lies in classifying and organizing the manifestations of thousands of gods and their aspects. In recent decades the study of Hinduism has also been taken up by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as theOxford Centre for Hindu Studies andBhaktivedanta College.[33]
There are also other traditions of Hindu theology, including the various theologies ofShaivism (which include dualistic andnon-dualistic strands) as well as the theologies of the Goddess centeredShakta traditions which posit a feminine deity as the ultimate.
In Japan, the termtheology (神学,shingaku) has been ascribed toShinto since theEdo period with the publication of Mano Tokitsuna'sKokon shingaku ruihen (古今神学類編, 'categorized compilation of ancient theology'). In modern times, other terms are used to denote studies in Shinto—as well as Buddhist—belief, such askyōgaku (教学, 'doctrinal studies') andshūgaku (宗学, 'denominational studies').
English academicGraham Harvey has commented thatPagans "rarely indulge in theology".[34] Nevertheless, theology has been applied in some sectors across contemporary Pagan communities, includingWicca,Heathenry,Druidry andKemetism. As these religions have given precedence toorthopraxy, theological views often vary among adherents. The term is used by Christine Kraemer in her bookSeeking The Mystery: An Introduction to Pagan Theologies and byMichael York inPagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.
Richard Hooker definestheology as "the science of things divine".[35] The term can, however, be used for a variety of disciplines or fields of study.[36] Theology considers whether the divine exists in some form, such as inphysical,supernatural,mental, orsocial realities, and what evidence for and about it may be found via personal spiritual experiences or historical records of such experiences as documented by others. The study of these assumptions is not part oftheology proper, but is found in thephilosophy of religion, and increasingly through thepsychology of religion andneurotheology. Theology's aim, then, is to record, structure and understand these experiences and concepts; and to use them to derive normative prescriptions forhow to live our lives.
In theearly medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.[46] Christian theological learning was, therefore, a component in these institutions, as was the study of church orcanon law: universities played an important role in training people for ecclesiastical offices, in helping the church pursue the clarification and defence of its teaching, and in supporting the legal rights of the church over against secular rulers.[47] At such universities, theological study was initially closely tied to the life of faith and of the church: it fed, and was fed by, practices ofpreaching,prayer and celebration of theMass.[48]
During the High Middle Ages, theology was the ultimate subject at universities, being named "The Queen of the Sciences". It served as the capstone to theTrivium andQuadrivium that young men were expected to study. This meant that the other subjects (includingphilosophy) existed primarily to help with theological thought.[49]In this context, medieval theology in the Christian West could subsume fields of study which would later become more self-sufficient, such asmetaphysics (Aristotle's "first philosophy",[50][51]orontology (the science of being).[52][53]
Christian theology's preeminent place in the university started to come under challenge during the EuropeanEnlightenment, especially in Germany.[54] Other subjects gained in independence and prestige, and questions were raised about the place of a discipline that seemed to involve a commitment to the authority of particular religious traditions in institutions that were increasingly understood to be devoted to independent reason.[55]
Since the early 19th century, various different approaches have emerged in the West to theology as an academic discipline. Much of the debate concerning theology's place in the university or within a general higher education curriculum centres on whether theology's methods are appropriately theoretical and (broadly speaking) scientific or, on the other hand, whether theology requires a pre-commitment of faith by its practitioners, and whether such a commitment conflicts with academic freedom.[54][56][57][58]
In some contexts, theology has been held to belong in institutions of higher education primarily as a form of professional training for Christian ministry. This was the basis on whichFriedrich Schleiermacher, a liberal theologian, argued for the inclusion of theology in the newUniversity of Berlin in 1810.[59][54]: ch. 14
For instance, inGermany, theological faculties at state universities are typically tied to particular denominations, Protestant or Roman Catholic, and those faculties will offer denominationally-bound(konfessionsgebunden) degrees, and have denominationally bound public posts amongst their faculty; as well as contributing "to the development and growth of Christian knowledge" they "provide the academic training for the future clergy and teachers of religious instruction at German schools."[60]
In some contexts, scholars pursue theology as an academic discipline without formal affiliation to any particular church (though members of staff may well have affiliations to churches), and without focussing on ministerial training. This applies, for instance, to the Department of Theological Studies atConcordia University inCanada, and to many university departments in theUnited Kingdom, including the Faculty of Divinity at theUniversity of Cambridge, the Department of Theology and Religion at theUniversity of Exeter, and the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at theUniversity of Leeds.[74][75] Traditional academic prizes, such as theUniversity of Aberdeen'sLumsden and Sachs Fellowship, tend to acknowledge performance in theology (ordivinity as it is known at Aberdeen) and in religious studies.
In some contemporary contexts, a distinction is made between theology, which is seen as involving some level of commitment to the claims of the religious tradition being studied, andreligious studies, which by contrast is normally seen as requiring that the question of the truth or falsehood of the religious traditions studied be kept outside its field. Religious studies involves the study of historical or contemporary practices or of those traditions' ideas using intellectual tools and frameworks that are not themselves specifically tied to any religious tradition and that are normally understood to be neutral or secular.[76] In contexts where 'religious studies' in this sense is the focus, the primary forms of study are likely to include:
Sometimes, theology and religious studies are seen as being in tension,[77] and at other times, they are held to coexist without serious tension.[78]Occasionally it is denied that there is as clear a boundary between them.[79]
Whether or not reasoned discussion about the divine is possible has long been a point of contention.Protagoras, as early as the fifth centuryBC, who is reputed to have been exiled from Athens because of hisagnosticism about the existence of the gods, said that "Concerning the gods I cannot know either that they exist or that they do not exist, or what form they might have, for there is much to prevent one's knowing: theobscurity of the subject and the shortness of man's life."[80][81]
Baron d'Holbach
Since at least the eighteenth century, various authors have criticized the suitability of theology as an academic discipline.[82] In 1772,Baron d'Holbach labeled theology "a continual insult to human reason" inLe Bon sens.[82]Lord Bolingbroke, an English politician and political philosopher, wrote in Section IV of hisEssays on Human Knowledge, "Theology is in fault not religion. Theology is a science that may justly be compared to theBox of Pandora. Many good things lie uppermost in it; but many evil lie under them, and scatter plagues and desolation throughout the world."[83]
The study of theology, as it stands in Christian churches, is the study of nothing; it is founded on nothing; it rests on no principles; it proceeds by no authorities; it has no data; it can demonstrate nothing; and it admits of no conclusion. Not anything can be studied as a science, without our being in possession of the principles upon which it is founded; and as this is the case with Christian theology, it is therefore the study of nothing.
The Germanatheist philosopherLudwig Feuerbach sought to dissolve theology in his workPrinciples of the Philosophy of the Future: "The task of the modern era was the realization and humanization of God – the transformation and dissolution of theology into anthropology."[85] This mirrored his earlier workThe Essence of Christianity (1841), for which he was banned from teaching in Germany, in which he had said that theology was a "web of contradictions and delusions".[86]The American satiristMark Twain remarked in his essay "The Lowest Animal", originally written in around 1896, but not published until after Twain's death in 1910, that:[87][88]
[Man] is the only animal thatloves his neighbor as himself and cuts his throat if his theology isn't straight. He has made a graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to smooth his brother's path to happiness and heaven.... The higher animals have no religion. And we are told that they are going to be left out in the Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable taste.
A. J. Ayer, a British formerlogical-positivist, sought to show in his essay "Critique of Ethics and Theology" that all statements about the divine are nonsensical and any divine-attribute is unprovable. He wrote: "It is now generally admitted, at any rate by philosophers, that the existence of a being having the attributes which define the god of any non-animistic religion cannot be demonstratively proved.... [A]ll utterances about the nature of God are nonsensical."[89]
Jewish atheist philosopherWalter Kaufmann, in his essay "Against Theology", sought to differentiate theology from religion in general:[90]
Theology, of course, is not religion; and a great deal of religion is emphatically anti-theological.... An attack on theology, therefore, should not be taken as necessarily involving an attack on religion. Religion can be, and often has been, untheological or even anti-theological.
However, Kaufmann found that "Christianity is inescapably a theological religion."[90]
English atheistCharles Bradlaugh believed theology prevented human beings from achieving liberty,[91] although he also noted that many theologians of his time held that, because modern scientific research sometimes contradicts sacred scriptures, the scriptures must therefore be wrong.[92]Robert G. Ingersoll, an American agnostic lawyer, stated that, when theologians had power, the majority of people lived in hovels, while a privileged few had palaces and cathedrals. In Ingersoll's opinion, it was science that improved people's lives, not theology. Ingersoll further maintained that trained theologians reason no better than a person who assumes the devil must exist because pictures resemble the devil so exactly.[93]
The Britishevolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins has been an outspoken critic of theology.[82][94] In an article published inThe Independent in 1993, he severely criticizes theology as entirely useless,[94] declaring that it has completely and repeatedly failed to answer any questions about the nature of reality or the human condition.[94] He states, "I have never heard any of them [i.e. theologians] ever say anything of the smallest use, anything that was not either platitudinously obvious or downright false."[94] He then states that, if all theology were completely eradicated from the earth, no one would notice or even care. He concludes:[94]
The achievements of theologians don't do anything, don't affect anything, don't achieve anything, don't even mean anything. What makes you think that 'theology' is a subject at all?
^See e.g., Anne Hunt Overzee's gloss upon the view ofRicœur (1913–2005) as to the role and work of 'theologian': "Paul Ricœur speaks of the theologian as a hermeneut, whose task is to interpret the multivalent, rich metaphors arising from the symbolic bases of tradition so that the symbols may 'speak' once again to our existential situation."Overzee, Anne Hunt. 1992.The Body Divine: The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and RamanujaArchived 26 March 2023 at theWayback Machine, (Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions 2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521385169. Retrieved 5 April 2010. p. 4.
^Scouteris, Constantine B. [1972] 2016.Ἡ ἔννοια τῶν ὅρων 'Θεολογία', 'Θεολογεῖν', 'Θεολόγος', ἐν τῇ διδασκαλίᾳ τῶν Ἑλλήνων Πατέρων καί Ἐκκλησιαστικῶν συγγραφέων μέχρι καί τῶν Καππαδοκῶν [The Meaning of the Terms 'Theology', 'to Theologize' and 'Theologian' in the Teaching of the Greek Fathers up to and Including the Cappadocians] (in Greek). Athens. pp. 187.
^Jones, Alan H. 1983.Independence and Exegesis: The Study of Early Christianity in the Work of Alfred Loisy (1857–1940), Charles Guignebert (1857 [i.e. 1867]–1939), and Maurice Goguel (1880–1955).Mohr Siebeck. p. 194.
^Rashkover, Randi. 1999. "A Call for Jewish Theology."CrossCurrents. "Frequently the claim is made that, unlike Christianity, Judaism is a tradition of deeds and maintains no strict theological tradition. Judaism's fundamental beliefs are inextricable from their halakhic observance (that set of laws revealed to Jews by God), embedded and presupposed by that way of life as it is lived and learned."
^Cabezon, Jose Ignacio. 1999. "Buddhist Theology in the Academy." pp. 25–52 inBuddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars, edited by R. Jackson andJ. J. Makransky. London: Routledge.
^King, Anna S. 2006. "For Love of Krishna: Forty Years of Chanting." pp. 134–67 inThe Hare Krishna Movement: Forty Years of Chant and Change, edited by G. Dwyer and R. J. Cole. London:I.B. Tauris. p. 163:Describes developments in both institutions, and speaks of Hare Krishna devotees "studying Vaishnava theology and practice in mainstream universities."
^Harvey, Graham (2007).Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism (2nd ed.). London: Hurst & Company. p. 1.ISBN978-1850652724.
^An earlier date is provided in:Reagan, Timothy. 2004.Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice (3rd ed.).Lawrence Erlbaum. p. 185; andChitnis, Sunna. 2003. "Higher Education." pp. 1032–56 inThe Oxford India Companion to Sociology and Social Anthropology, edited byV. Das. New Delhi:Oxford University Press. p. 1036.
^abScharfe, Hartmut. 2002.Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill.
^Dillon, John. 2003.The Heirs of Plato: A Study in the Old Academy, 347–274 BC. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
^Becker, Adam H. (2006).The Fear of God and the Beginning of Wisdom: The School of Nisibis and the Development of Scholastic Culture in Late Antique Mesopotamia.University of Pennsylvania Press.
^Lulat, Y. G. 2005.A History of African Higher Education from Antiquity to the Present: A Critical Synthesis. Greenwood. p. 71:The Al-Qarawiyyin mosque was founded in 859 AD, but "While instruction at the mosque must have begun almost from the beginning, it is only...by the end of the tenth-century that its reputation as a center of learning in both religious and secular sciences...must have begun to wax."
^Rüegg, Walter. 2003. "Themes." pp. 3–34 inA History of the University in Europe, edited by W. Rüegg and H. de Ridder-Symoens, (Universities in the Middle Ages 1). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–16.
^SeeD'Costa, Gavin. 2005.Theology in the Public Square: Church, Academy and Nation. Oxford:Blackwell. ch. 1.
^Ontology - "In the 13th century, appropriating Aristotle's threefold division of the speculative sciences (physics, mathematics, and what Aquinas variously calls 'first philosophy' or 'metaphysics' or 'theology'), Aquinas argues that primary being and being in general are the subject of the same science (eadem enim est scientia primi entis et entis communis) inasmuch as primary being (s) are principles of the others (nam prima entia sunt principia aliorum; cf. Aquinas'In Boeth. de Trin. 5.1,In 10 meta. 6 and 11, and theProemium to the latter)."
^Rutherford, J. Alexander (2021).The Gift of Seeing: A Biblical Perspective on Ontology. Volume 3 of God's Gifts for the Christian Life – Part 1. Airdrie, Alberta: Teleioteti. p. 3.ISBN9781989560198. Retrieved16 October 2023.[...] Scripture has implications for ontology [...]. [...] the theology we proclaim is deeply intertwined with ontology [...].
^Ontology – "In the sixth book [of theMetaphysics] (1026a16–32), Aristotle refers to a first philosophy that is concerned with being as being, but in contrast to physics and mathematics, precisely as the speculative science of what is separate from matter and motion. First philosophy in this context is labeled 'theology' inasmuch as the divine would only be present in something of this nature, i.e., some immutable being (ousia akinetos)."
^Marsden, George M. 1994.The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New York:Oxford University Press. p. 41:"The primary purpose of Harvard College was, accordingly, the training of clergy.' But 'the school served a dual purpose, training men for other professions as well."
^Curran, Robert Emmett, andLeo J. O'Donovan. 1961.The Bicentennial History of Georgetown University: From Academy to University 1789–1889, Part 1. Georgetown:Georgetown University Press:Georgetown was a Jesuit institution founded in significant part to provide a pool of educated Catholics some of whom who could go on to full seminary training for the priesthood.
^Dexter, Franklin Bowditch. 1916. "The Charter of the Collegiate School, October 1701." InDocumentary History of Yale University, Under the Original Charter of the Collegiate School of Connecticut 1701–1745. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press:Yale's original 1701 charter speaks of the purpose being "Sincere Regard & Zeal for upholding & Propagating of the Christian Protestant Religion by a succession of Learned & Orthodox" and that "Youth may be instructed in the Arts and Sciences (and) through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted for Publick employment both in Church and Civil State."
^"The CTU Story".Catholic Theological Union. Archived fromthe original on 7 March 2013. Retrieved16 March 2013.lay men and women, religious sisters and brothers, and seminarians have studied alongside one another, preparing to serve God's people
^See'About the GTU'Archived 19 August 2009 at theWayback Machine at The Graduate Theological Union website (Retrieved 29 August 2009): 'dedicated to educating students for teaching, research, ministry, and service.'
^"The Criswell Vision".Criswell College. Archived fromthe original on 26 April 2010. Retrieved29 August 2009.Criswell College exists to serve the churches of our Lord Jesus Christ by developing God-called men and women in the Word (intellectually and academically) and by the Word (professionally and spiritually) for authentic ministry leadership
^"Mission Statement".Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Archived fromthe original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved29 August 2009.the mission of The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary is ... to be a servant of the churches of the Southern Baptist Convention by training, educating, and preparing ministers of the gospel for more faithful service
^"About Trinity Evangelical Divinity School".Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. Archived fromthe original on 30 August 2011. Retrieved29 August 2009.Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (TEDS) is a learning community dedicated to the development of servant leaders for the global church, leaders who are spiritually, biblically, and theologically prepared to engage contemporary culture for the sake of Christ's kingdom
^"About" at the Dallas Theological Seminary website: "At Dallas, the scholarly study of biblical and related subjects is inseparably fused with the cultivation of the spiritual life. All this is designed to prepare students to communicate the Word of God in the power of the Spirit of God." Retrieved 29 August 2009.Archived 20 February 2006 at theWayback Machine.
^Ford, David. 2009. "Theology and Religious Studies for a Multifaith and Secular Society." InTheology and Religious Studies in Higher Education, edited by D. L. Bird and S. G. Smith. London: Continuum.
^Protagoras. "On the Gods", translated by M. J. O'Brien. InThe Older Sophists, edited by R. K. Sprague. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. 1972. p. 20 (fr.4). (emphasis added).
