Theodulf of Orléans (Saragossa,Spain,c. 750(/60) – 18 December 821[disputed –discuss]) was a writer, poet and theBishop of Orléans (c. 798 to 818) during the reign ofCharlemagne andLouis the Pious. He was a key member of theCarolingian Renaissance and an important figure during the many reforms of the church under Charlemagne, as well as almost certainly the author of theLibri Carolini,[1] "much the fullest statement of the Western attitude to representational art that has been left to us by the Middle Ages".[2] He is mainly remembered for this and the survival of the private oratory or chapel made for his villa atGermigny-des-Prés, with amosaic probably from about 806.[3] In Bible manuscripts produced under his influence, theBook of Baruch and theLetter of Jeremiah (as Chapter 6 of the Book of Baruch) became part of the Western (Vulgate) Bible canon.
Theodulf was born inSpain, probablySaragossa, between 750 and 760, and was ofVisigothic descent.[4] He fled Spain because of the Moorish occupation of the region and traveled to the South-Western province of Gaul calledAquitaine, where he received an education.[5] He went on to join the monastery nearMaguelonne in Southern Gaul led by the abbotBenedict of Aniane. During his trip to Rome in 786, Theodulf was inspired by the centres of learning there, and sent letters to a large number of abbots and bishops of the Frankish empire, encouraging them to establish public schools.[6]
Charlemagne recognized Theodulf's importance within his court and simultaneously named him Bishop of Orléans (c. 798) and abbot of many monasteries, most notably theBenedictine abbey ofFleury-sur-Loire.[7] He then went on to establish public schools outside the monastic areas which he oversaw, following through on this idea that had impressed him so much during his trip to Rome. Theodulf quickly became one of Charlemagne's favoured theologians alongsideAlcuin of Northumbria and was deeply involved in many facets of Charlemagne’s desire to reform the church, for example by editing numerous translated texts that Charlemagne believed to be inaccurate and translating sacred texts directly from theclassical Greek andHebrew languages.[8] He was a witness to theemperor's will in 811.
Charlemagne died in 814 and was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious.[9] Louis' nephew, KingBernard of Italy, sought independence from the Frankish empire and raised his army against the latter. Bernard was talked into surrendering, but was punished by Louis severely, sentencing him to have his sight removed. The procedure of blinding Bernard went wrong and he died as a result of the operation.[10] Louis believed that numerous people in his court were conspiring against him with Bernard, and Theodulf was one of many who were accused of treason. He was forced to abandon his position of Bishop of Orléans in 817 and was exiled to a monastery inAngers in 818 where he spent the next two years of his life.[11] After he was released in 820, he tried to reclaim his bishopric in Orléans but was never able to reach the city because it is believed that he died during the trip or some time after that. Theodulf of Orléans died on January 18, 821,[disputed –discuss] and his body was brought back toAngers where it was buried.[12]
According to some sources Theodulf may have been married at the beginning of his career and had a daughter named Gisla.[13]
The oratory at Germigny-des-Prés (Loiret, Orléanais), an example ofCarolingian architecture, was built by Bishop Theodulf in 806 as part of his Gallo-Roman villa in Germaniacus. Theodulf was also abbot of the neighboring monastery ofSaint-Benoît-sur-Loire. His complex at Germigny-des-Prés was in a general sense modelled on Charlemagne'sPalace of Aachen, the center of theCarolingian Empire at that time.
All except the oratory was destroyed by theNormans (then just emerging from theVikings) within a century of construction. The villa hadfrescos of theSeven liberal arts, theFour Seasons, and theMappa Mundi,[14] and themosaic in the oratory is virtually the onlyCarolingian mosaic to survive, though over-restored in the 1860s, when the oratory was given what is generally agreed to have been a disastrous over-restoration and reconstruction. The subject of the mosaic, theArk of the Covenant with attendant angels, is otherwise only found in early Jewish bibles (usually as the sole illustration), and probably relates to theLibri Carolini, where the Ark, with its goldencherubim, is mentioned as a significant proof of divine approval of religious images.
As Bishop of Orléans (798–818), Theodulf wrote two importantcapitularies.
Capitula ad presbyteros parochiae
The first capitulary was a reminder to the priests of his diocese of the importance of manual labour, studying, prayer and chastity.[15]
Capitula altera Theodulpho episcopo Aurelianensi adscripta
The second capitulary focused on his code of penance where he lists the consequences of murder, adultery, fornication, incest, thievery,usury and other infractions.[16]It is divided in ten main parts:
Theodulf composed hymns and poems as well, of which 80 are preserved.Gloria, laus et honor is the most famous one of them.
Theodulf was also almost certainly responsible for composing theLibri Carolini (c. 793) which served as a rebuttal to a faulty translation of the acts of theSecond Council of Nicaea of 787 which was mistakenly interpreted as saying that the worship ("adoration") of images was acceptable in the church.[17] According to it, the Council suggested that an end was to be put to theiconoclastic period which had led to the destruction of many sacred images in the church, especially inConstantinople, which was only partially true. This translation made its way from Rome to the court of Charlemagne where it infuriated the Frankish emperor and his loyal theologians, including Theodulf, who was ordered to write theLibri Carolini in Charlemagne's name in a way that portrayed him as the sole representative of the Western world and defender of the church against a supposedidolatry.[18]
According to theLibri Carolini, images may be used as ecclesiastical ornaments, for purposes of instruction, and in memory of past events. It would be foolish, however, to burn incense before them and to use lights, though it would be quite wrong to cast them out of the churches and destroy them. Strong opposition is voiced in it to "adoration" of images, wrongly believing that the Council in Nicaea used this word, taken to mean the absolute adoration reserved for God alone, while only an appropriateveneration is to be given to thesaints, and reverential honour to the Cross of Christ, Scripture, sacred vessels, andrelics of the saints. The Greek word προσκύνησις that the Council in fact used means no more than reverence in a prostrate attitude.[19]
Theodulf brought fresh ideas and an open mind to the period known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He believed in always keeping the door open and never refusing pilgrims, travelers or the poor if they needed a meal or a place to stay for the night. He believed that you had to offer the less fortunate a seat at your dinner table if you one day wished to have a seat at the banquet of God. These ideas were highly influenced by his readings of Augustine.[20] He often referred to himself as the poor traveler or stranger, being born in Spain and of Visigothic descent, and being accepted with open arms by the royal court of Charlemagne.[6]
Theodulf was an avid reader of Christian literature, and some of his favorite writers are listed in one of his letters to thePope Leo III which include mentions of texts byGregory the Great,St. Augustine,St. Jerome, andSt. Isidore.[21] He also mentions in his letters that he enjoyed reading pagan literature including poems by Virgil and Ovid which he thought may seem filled with heresy at first, but underneath the surface had useful morals which could be applied to Christian morality.[22] He was also very fond of the Seven Liberal Arts and they were depicted in fresco in his dining room so that his spirit and body could be fed simultaneously.[20]
