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Theodoret of Cyrus | |
|---|---|
.png) Theodoret of Cyrus | |
| Born | c. 393 Antioch,Coele Syria,Roman Empire |
| Died | c. 458 Cyrrhus,Syria Prima,Eastern Roman Empire |
| Venerated in | Eastern Orthodox Church |
Theodoret of Cyrus orCyrrhus (Ancient Greek:Θεοδώρητος Κύρρου;c. 393 –c. 458) was a notable theologian of theSchool of Antioch, biblical commentator, andbishop ofCyrrhus (423–457). He participated in several 5th-centuryChristological controversies within theEastern Roman Church that resulted in various ecumenical acts and schisms. Theodoret wrote againstCyril of Alexandria'sTwelve Anathemas, which were sent toNestorius, and did not condemn Nestorius until theCouncil of Chalcedon. Selected writings by Theodoret directed against Cyril formed part of the subject matter of theThree Chapters Controversy and were condemned posthumously at theSecond Council of Constantinople (553). He is accorded the epithet "Blessed" in theEastern Orthodox Church.[a][3]
According to the historianTillemont, he was born atAntioch in 393 and died about 458, either at Cyrrhus (an estimated eighty Roman miles east ofAntioch) or at themonastery nearApamea (fifty-four Roman miles southeast of Antioch).[4]
Information regarding his life is derived primarily from hisEpistles and hisReligious History (Philotheos historia). He was the child of a prosperous Antiochene couple. Encouraged after his mother was cured of a serious eye complaint and converted to a strict religious life byPeter the Galatian, an ascetic living in the locality,[5] Theodoret's parents sought further help from local holy men, as she had been childless for the twelve years of her marriage. For years their hopes remained unfulfilled. Eventually, Theodoret's birth was promised by ahermit namedMacedonius the Barley-Eater on the condition of the child's dedication to God, from which the name Theodoret ("gift of God") is derived.[6]
Theodoret received an extensive education. Although his own writings suggest his training was exclusively religious, his literary output demonstrates that he also acquired a broad classical education, a common expectation for a child of prosperous parents in a city known as a centre of secular learning. He visited Peter the Galatian weekly, was instructed by Macedonius and other ascetics, and at an early age became alector among the clergy of Antioch. He studied the works ofDiodore of Tarsus andTheodore of Mopsuestia, having been raised in their theological tradition. His correspondents included the sophists Aerius and Isokasius. He understood Syriac as well as Greek, but knew neither Hebrew nor Latin.[7] In his letters, he quotes fromHomer,Sophocles,Euripides,Aristophanes,Demosthenes, andThucydides.[8] By the age of twenty-three, following the death of his parents, he divided his fortune among the poor and became a monk in the monastery of Nicerte, near Apamea,[9] where he lived for about seven years.
In 423, he left the monastery upon his appointment as Bishop of Cyrrhus. Thediocese covered approximately 1,600 square miles and comprised 800 parishes, with a small town as itssee. Supported by the appeals of local hermits, and despite facing personal danger, Theodoret vigorously maintained his doctrinal positions. He converted more than 1,000Marcionites in his diocese,[10] in addition to manyArians andMacedonians.[11] He removed more than 200 copies ofTatian'sDiatessaron from the churches, erected new church buildings, and supplied them withrelics.
His philanthropic and economic interests were extensive. He endeavoured to secure relief for people oppressed by taxation and, using his episcopal revenues, erected baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts. He attractedrhetoricians andphysicians to the city and reminded officials of their duties. He sent letters of encouragement to the persecuted Christians ofPersianArmenia and provided refuge to Celestiacus, aCarthaginian who had fled the rule of theVandals.[4]
Theodoret was a prominent figure in theChristological controversies of the 5th century involvingNestorius of Constantinople andCyril of Alexandria. Theodoret joined in the petition ofJohn I of Antioch toNestorius to affirm the termTheotokos ("Mother of God"),[7] and at John's request, wrote against Cyril'sTwelve Anathemas.
He may have drafted the Antiochianconfession of faith, intended to present a clear exposition of theNicene Creed to the emperor. He was a member and spokesman of the deputation of eight from Antioch called by the emperor to Constantinople in 431, following theFirst Council of Ephesus. He did not assent to the condemnation of Nestorius. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by entrenching upon Theodoret'separchy.[citation needed]
Theodoret sought to preserve the peace of the Church by obtaining the adoption of a formula avoiding the unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and toward the close of 434 worked for reconciliation between the Eastern churches.[12] However, Cyril maintained his position. When Cyril launched an attack in 437 againstDiodorus of Tarsus andTheodore of Mopsuestia, John sided with them, and Theodoret assumed the defence of the Antiochian party (c. 439).[7]Domnus II, the successor of John, retained him as his counsellor. After the death of Cyril, adherents of Antiochian theology were appointed to bishoprics. Irenaeus, a friend of Nestorius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, becamebishop of Tyre, despite the protests of Dioscorus, Cyril's successor. Dioscorus turned specifically against Theodoret and secured an order from the court confining him to Cyrrhus.[citation needed]
Theodoret then composed theEranistes. His efforts at court for self-justification against the charges of Dioscorus, as well as the countercharge of Domnus accusingEutyches ofApollinarianism, were in vain. The Emperor Theodosius II excluded Theodoret from theSecond Council of Ephesus in 449.[13] At the council, because of hisEpistle 151 against Cyril and his defence of Diodorus and Theodore, he was condemned without a hearing andexcommunicated; his writings were ordered to be burned. Domnus gave his assent.[4]
Theodoret was compelled by imperial authorities to leave Cyrrhus and retire to his monastery at Nicerte, near Apamea. He appealed to PopeLeo I of Rome, but the revocation of the judgments against him was not granted by imperial edict until the new rulers,Marcian andPulcheria, took power after the death of EmperorTheodosius II in 450. He was ordered to participate in theCouncil of Chalcedon, which created violent opposition from the Alexandrian party. He first took part only as an accuser, yet sat among the bishops, in contrast to Dioscorus, who was seated with the accused despite being the canonicalPatriarch of Alexandria. Then, he was pressured by the Council Fathers (October 26, 451) to pronounce the anathema against Nestorius. His conduct suggests he performed this with a reservation: his anathema was restricted to Nestorius's alleged teaching of "two Sons in Christ" and the denial of the termTheotokos. Upon this, he was declaredorthodox and restored to his see.[4][13]
Following the Council of Chalcedon, his activity is primarily documented by a letter from Leo charging him to guard theChalcedonian Definition. With Diodorus and Theodore, he was no less reviled by theMonophysites than Nestorius himself, and was considered a heretic by them and their associates. After Chalcedon, he lived in Cyrrhus until his death, which is traditionally dated toc. 458–460.[14][15]
TheThree Chapters Controversy led to the condemnation of his writings against Cyril in theSecond Council of Constantinople (553), despite his personal exoneration earlier at Chalcedon as "orthodox".[16][17]
Theodoret'sexegetical works constitute his most extensive literary output and are considered his most significant contribution to theology. Scholars establish a chronology of these works by studying Theodoret's references in later works to his earlier ones. The commentary on theSong of Songs, written while he was a young bishop (though not before 430), precedes his work on thePsalms. His commentaries on the prophets began withDaniel, followed byEzekiel and theMinor Prophets. Subsequently, his commentary on the Psalms was completed before 436, while those onIsaiah,Jeremiah, and thePauline Epistles (includingHebrews) were written before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were theInterpretations of Difficult Passages in theOctateuch and theQuaestiones dealing with the books ofSamuel,Kings, andChronicles, writtenc. 452–453.[4]
With the exception of a few verses from the commentary onGalatians (2:6–13) and fragments of the commentary on Isaiah preserved in thecatenae, Theodoret's exegetical writings are extant. Exegetical material attributed to him on theGospels in thecatenae may have originated from his other works, and spurious interpolations occur in his comments on theOctateuch.[citation needed]
His representation of orthodox doctrine consists of a collection of Scripture passages.[citation needed] For Theodoret, the biblical authors are instruments of theHoly Spirit, though they do not lose their individual characteristics. He states that understanding is hindered by the unavoidable imperfection of translations. Unacquainted withHebrew, Theodoret uses theSyriac translation, theSeptuagint, and other Greek versions.[citation needed]
In principle, his exegesis is grammatical-historical, and he criticizes the intrusion of the commentator's own ideas. His aim is to avoid the extremes of excessiveliteralism and unrestrainedallegory. Consequently, he protests against the literal interpretation of the Song of Songs asSolomonic erotic poetry, viewing it as degrading to the Holy Spirit; instead, he argues that Scripture often speaks "figuratively" and "in riddles." In theOld Testament, many elements carry typological significance and already prophetically embody Christian doctrine. Divine illumination affords the right understanding, following apostolic teaching and recognizingNew Testament fulfillment. The exegetical tradition of the Church Fathers is considered valuable, though not binding. Theodoret prefers to select the best among various interpretations available to him, especially those ofTheodore of Mopsuestia, and supplements them with his own insights. His work is characterized by clarity and simplicity of statement; he is credited with preserving the exegetical heritage of theSchool of Antioch.[citation needed]
Many of Theodoret's dogmatic works have been lost; five major treatises, however, have survived.
His chief Christological work is theEranistes (The Beggar), written in three dialogues. In it, Theodoret describes his opponents, principally the Eutychians, as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources, and himself as the orthodox defender. The work is interspersed with lengthyflorilegia (anthologies of patristic citations), which scholars suggest may be the reason for its preservation. Theseflorilegia provide evidence of Theodoret's learning, comprising 238 texts drawn from 88 works, including pre-Nicene writers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus, and Hippolytus, as well as theologians such asAthanasius and theCappadocian Fathers. This use offlorilegia is cited as heralding a new stage in doctrinal development by creating a new authority for Christian theology: that of the Fathers.[18][19]
Two works,On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity andOn the Incarnation of the Lord, survived historically through misattribution to his opponent,Cyril of Alexandria.[18][20][21]
Another surviving work is theRefutation of the Twelve Anathemas, a rejection of the anathemas pronounced against Nestorius by Cyril of Alexandria. The text was preserved within Cyril's apology against Theodoret.[22] Theodoret identifiesApollinarianism in Cyril's teaching and rejects the idea of a "contracting into one" of the two natures of the Only-Begotten, as well as a separation into two sons (Epistle 143). Instead of a "hypostatic union," he accepts only a union that "manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures." The man united toGod was born ofMary; between God theLogos and the form of a servant, a distinction must be drawn.
TheExpositio rectae fidei (Exposition of the True Faith) was preserved among the writings ofJustin Martyr. However, Lebon (1930) and Sellers (1945) independently identified it as the work of Theodoret, likely dating it to before the outbreak of theNestorian controversy.[23]
Only minor fragments (cf.Epistle 16) of Theodoret's defence of Diodorus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (438-444) have been preserved.[24]
Theodoret mentions having written againstArius andEunomius,[25] which is generally assumed to be a single combined work, to which were joined three treatises against the Macedonians. Additionally, there were two works against the Apollinarians, and of theOpus adversus Marcionem, no complete text has been preserved.
For Theodoret, God is immutable even inbecoming man; the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassible. Each nature remained "pure" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of a collection of twenty-seven orations in defence of various propositions, the first six align with Theodoret's theology. A few extracts from the five panegyric orations on John Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (Bibliotheca, codex 273).
One of theapologetic writings was theAd quaestiones magorum (composed between 429 and 436), now lost, in which Theodoret justified theOld Testament sacrifices as alternatives to Egyptian idolatry[26] and criticised the accounts of theMagi who worshipped the elements; the work is mentioned in hisEcclesiasticalHistory (Book V, Chapter 38).
De providentia, orTen Discourses on Providence, consists of apologetic discourses arguing for divine providence based on the physical order (Discourses I-IV) and the moral and social order (Discourses VI-X). Scholars generally place their delivery to the educated Greek-speaking audience of Antioch between 431 and 435. Unlike most sermons of the period, they consist of systematic philosophical arguments and lectures rather than homilies on scriptural texts.[citation needed]
TheGraecarum Affectionum Curatio (Cure of the Greek Maladies), subtitledThe Truth of the Gospel proved from Greek Philosophy, is a work in twelve books that attempted to demonstrate the truth of Christianity usingGreek philosophy, in contrast to pagan ideas and practices. It forms one of the last apologies written, as the need for such works diminished in an age of Christian dominance. Theodoret argued that the truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured by error and that it validates itself as the power of life, whereas philosophy is only a presentiment of it. Scholars consider this work noteworthy for its clarity of arrangement and style.[27]
TheEcclesiastical History of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and ends with the death of Theodore of Mopsuestia in 429, is different in style from the histories ofSocrates Scholasticus andSozomen; although the work was completed in 449–450, it does not cover the period between 429 and its completion. It contains many sources otherwise lost, especially letters on theArian controversy. However, critics describe the book as partisan, noting that opposing theological factions are consistently portrayed negatively and described as afflicted with the "Arian plague." The narrative is more concise than that of other historians, and Theodoret often juxtaposes documents with only brief commentary. Original material regarding the church of Antioch appears chiefly in the latter books.[citation needed]
Scholarly opinion regarding the sources used by Theodoret varies. According toHenricus Valesius, the main sources were Socrates and Sozomen. Albert Güldenpenning placedRufinus first in importance, followed byEusebius of Caesarea,Athanasius, Sozomen,Sabinus,Philostorgius,Gregory Nazianzen, and Socrates. N. Glubokovskij identifies Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus as sources.[citation needed]
At the request ofSporacius, a military commander, Theodoret compiled aCompendium of Heretical Accounts (Haereticarum fabularum compendium), which includes aheresiology (Books I-IV) and aCompendium of Divine Dogmas (Book V). Apart fromOrigen'sDe principiis and theDe fide orthodoxa ofJohn of Damascus, scholars consider this work to be one of the few systematic representations of the theology of theGreek Fathers.[citation needed]
ThePhilotheos historia, also known asA History of the Monks of Syria, which includes the treatiseDe divina charitate, contains the biographies of thirty ascetics and anchorites, presented as religious models. It presents a view into the distinct monastic tradition of northern Syria; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority that contrasts sharply with Athanasius'sLife of Anthony.
Of the thirty ascetics detailed inA History of the Monks of Syria, the last ten subjects were living when Theodoret completed the work, generally dated toc. 444.[28]
Compared to the more than 500 letters known toNikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos in the fourteenth century, only 232 have survived to the modern era. Three collections survive, though there is some overlap between them. 179 letters were edited byJacques Sirmond in 1642. To these, Ioannes Sakkelion added another 48 letters (known as theCollectio Patmensis) which he published from a manuscript he found at theMonastery of Saint John the Theologian in 1885.[29] Thirty-six letters have been preserved in the official records (Acta) of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. These letters document rural Christianity in northern Syria, as well as insight into episcopal relationships; the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon is evident. There are letters of consolation and commendation, valued for their detail on episcopal life and rhetoric.[18]
An English translation of the surviving letters is part of theNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Second Series, Vol. 3, pp. 250–348).[30]
Theodoret's works address linguistic issues regarding translations of sacred texts and theological works, and his interest was focused mainly on the exchange between Greek and Syriac.[31][32] Because of his fluency inSyriac[33] and his life in the Hellenized regions of westernRoman Syria,[34] he had a degree of familiarity with the dialect and noted its variations. He explained that "the Osroenians, the Syrians, the people of theEuphrates, thePalestinians, and thePhoenicians all speak Syriac," a term he used to refer to various local Aramaic dialects, "but with a multitude of pronunciation differences."[35] In this passage, he distinguished "Syrians" as the inhabitants to the west of the Euphrates and "Osroenians" (the people of Edessa) to the east, noting their different dialects of the same language.[36][37]
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Theodoret".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
