Theocracy orethiocracy is a form ofautocracy[1] oroligarchy in which one or moredeities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive, legislative, and/or judicial power, who manage the government's daily affairs.[2][3]
The word theocracy originates from theAncient Greek:θεοκρατία (theocratia) meaning "the rule of God". This, in turn, derives fromθεός (theos), meaning "god", andκρατέω (krateo), meaning "to rule". Thus the meaning of the word in Greek was "rule by god(s)" or humanincarnation(s) of god(s).
The term was initially coined byFlavius Josephus in the first century AD to describe the characteristic government of theJews. Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types:monarchy,oligarchy, anddemocracy. However, according to Josephus, the government of the Jews was unique. Josephus offered the termtheocracy to describe this polity in which a god was sovereign and the god's word was law.[4]
Josephus' definition was widely accepted until theEnlightenment era, when the term took on negativeconnotations and was barely salvaged byHegel's commentary.[5] The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning "sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" (as inancient Israel and Judah); the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" was first recorded in 1825.
The termtheocracy derives from theKoine Greekθεοκρατία, "rule of God", a term used byJosephus for thekingdoms of Israel and Judah,[6] reflecting the view that "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state.[7] The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, may be more accurately described as an ecclesiocracy.[8]
In anhierocracy, a specific type of theocracy, the governing body is composed of a hierarchical structure of religious officials or clergy.
In anecclesiocracy, the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation.
In achurch-state, a state where religious and political power are intertwined, often with the church having significant influence over the government
A related phenomenon is a secular government co-existing with a state religion or delegating some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, inIsrael (which is sometimes referred to as a theocracy[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]),marriage is governed by officially recognized religious bodies who each provide marriage services for their respected adherents, yet no form of civil marriage (free of religion) exists, nor marriage by non-recognized minority religions.
According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, there are two meanings for the wordtheocracy: (1) government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided; and (2) a state governed by a theocracy.
Following theCapture of Rome on 20 September 1870, thePapal States including Rome with theVatican were annexed by theKingdom of Italy. In 1929, through theLateran Treaty signed with the Italian Government, the new state ofVatican City was formally created and recognised as an independent state fromFascist Italy.[16] The head of state of the Vatican is thepope, elected by theCollege of Cardinals, an assembly of high-ranking clergy.[16] The pope is elected for life, and either dies in office, or in extremely rare situations may resign. The cardinals are appointed by the popes, who thereby choose the electors of their successors.
Voting is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age.[16] A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations, is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted incanon law. The Bishop of Rome, as theSupreme Pontiff, "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers."[17] Although the laws of Vatican City come from the secular laws of Italy, under article 3 of the Law of the Sources of the Law, a provision is made for the application of the "laws promulgated by the Kingdom of Italy".[18]
Mount Athos is a mountain peninsula inGreece which is anEastern Orthodoxautonomous area consisting of 20monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of thePrimate of Constantinople. There have been almost 1,800 years of a continuous Christian presence on Mount Athos, and it has a long history ofmonasteries, which dates back to at least 800 AD. The origin ofself-rule at Mount Athos can be traced back to a royaledict issued by theByzantine EmperorJohn Tzimisces in 972, and reaffirmed by EmperorAlexios I Komnenos in 1095. Greece wrestled control of the area from theOttoman Empire during theFirst Balkan War in 1912. However, it was formally recognized as part of Greece only after a diplomatic dispute with theRussian Empire was no longer an obstacle, after the latter's collapse duringWorld War I.[19]
Mount Athos is specifically exempt from thefree movement of people and goods required by Greece's membership of theEuropean Union,[20] and entrance is allowed only with express permission from the monks. The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, with all visitors required to obtain an entrance permit. Only men are permitted to visit, and Eastern Orthodox Christians take precedence in the issuing of permits. Residents of Mount Athos must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers.[21]
AnIslamic republic is the name given to several states that are officially ruled byIslamic laws, including the Islamic Republics ofIran,Pakistan, andMauritania. Pakistan first adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979Iranian Revolution that overthrew thePahlavi dynasty.
The term "Islamic republic" has come to mean several different things, at times contradictory. To some Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East and Africa who advocate it, an Islamic republic is astate under a particularIslamicform of government. They see it as a compromise between a purely Islamiccaliphate and secular nationalism andrepublicanism. In their conception of the Islamic republic, thepenal code of the state is required to be compatible with some or all laws ofSharia, and the state does not necessarily have to be a monarchy, as many Middle Eastern states presently are.[22]
Afghanistan was an Islamic theocracy when theTaliban first ruled it from 1996 to 2001, and again since their reinstatement of theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan in 2021.
Spreading fromKandahar, the Taliban eventually capturedKabul in 1996. By the end of 2000, the Taliban controlled 90% of the country, aside from the opposition (Northern Alliance) strongholds which were primarily found in the northeast corner ofBadakhshan Province. Areas under the Taliban's direct control were mainly Afghanistan's major cities and highways. Tribal khans and warlords hadde facto direct control over various small towns, villages, and rural areas.[23] The Taliban sought to establishlaw and order and to impose a strict interpretation of IslamicSharia law, along with the religious edicts of MullahMohammed Omar, upon the entire country of Afghanistan.[24]
Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a "madrasah education." Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who were ready to leave their administrative posts to fight when needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths increased the chaos in the national administration.[29] At the national level, "all seniorTajik,Uzbek andHazara bureaucrats" were replaced "with Pashtuns, whether qualified or not." Consequently, the ministries "by and large ceased to function."[30]
JournalistAhmed Rashid described the Taliban government as "a secret society run byKandaharis ... mysterious, secretive, and dictatorial."[31] They did not hold elections, as their spokesman explained:
TheSharia does not allow politics or political parties. That is why we give no salaries to officials or soldiers, just food, clothes, shoes, and weapons. We want to live a life like the Prophet lived 1400 years ago, and jihad is our right. We want to recreate the time of the Prophet, and we are only carrying out what the Afghan people have wanted for the past 14 years.[32]
They modeled their decision-making process on the Pashtun tribal council (jirga), together with what they believed to be the early Islamic model. Discussion was followed by a building of a consensus by the "believers".[33] Before capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside once a government of "good Muslims" took power, and law and order were restored.
As the Taliban's power grew, decisions were made by Mullah Omar without consulting thejirga and without consulting other parts of the country. One such instance is the rejection of Loya Jirga decision about expulsion ofOsama bin Laden. Mullah Omar visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah"), in imitation ofthe Prophet and thefirst fourCaliphs. On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "theCloak of Muhammad" taken from its shrine,Kirka Sharif, for the first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtunmullahs below shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support. Taliban spokesman Mullah Wakil explained:
Decisions are based on the advice of the Amir-ul Momineen. For us, consultation is not necessary. We believe that this is in line with theSharia. We abide by the Amir's view even if he alone takes this view. There will not be a head of state. Instead, there will be an Amir al-Mu'minin. Mullah Omar will be the highest authority, and the government will not be able to implement any decision to which he does not agree. General elections are incompatible withSharia and therefore we reject them.[34]
The Taliban were reluctant to share power, and since their ranks were overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled as overlords over the 60% of Afghans from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as the Kabul city council[31] or Herat,[35] Taliban loyalists, not locals, dominated, even when thePashto-speaking Taliban could not communicate with roughly half of the population who spokeDari or other non-Pashtun tongues.[35] Critics complained that this "lack of local representation in urban administration made the Taliban appear as an occupying force." After the collapse of the government following thefall of Kabul in August 2021, the Taliban returned to power and reestablished an authoritarian theocracy. They declared the restoration of theSecond Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with their governance rooted in their strict interpretation of Sharia law.[30]
Iran has been described as a "theocratic republic" by various sources,[36][37][38] including theCIAWorld Factbook.[39] Its constitution has been described as a "hybrid" of "theocratic and democratic elements" byFrancis Fukuyama.[40] Like other Islamic states, it maintains religious laws and has religious courts to interpret all aspects of law. According to Iran's constitution, "all civil, penal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria."[41]
The Leader is elected by theAssembly of Experts[39][44] which is made up ofmujtahids,[45] who are Islamic scholars competent in interpretingSharia. TheGuardian Council, has the power to reject bills passed bythe Parliament. It can also approve or reject candidates who want to run for the Presidency, Parliament, and the Assembly of Experts. The council supervises elections, and can allow or ban investigations into elections.[39] Six of the twelve council members arefaqih and have the power to approve or reject all bills passed bythe Parliament, whether the faqih believes that the bill is in accordance with Islamic laws and customs (Sharia) or not. The other six members are lawyers appointed by the chief justice, who is a cleric and appointed by the Leader.[46]
In theBasic Law of Saudi Arabia,Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign ArabIslamic state with Islam as its official religion. However, some critiques describe Saudi Arabia as an Islamic theocracy. Religious minorities do not have the right to practice their religion openly. Conversion from Islam to another religion is punishable by death asapostasy.[47] Muhammad Al-Atawneh describes the current Saudi regime as a 'theo-monarchy, that draws power from long-standing religio-cultural norms.'[48]
TheCentral Tibetan Administration, colloquially known as the Tibetan government in exile, is aTibetan exile organization with a state-like internal structure. According to its charter, the position of head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration belongsex officio to theDalai Lama, a religious hierarch. In this respect, it continues the traditions of theformer government of Tibet, which was ruled by the Dalai Lamas and their ministers, with a specific role reserved for a class of monk officials.
On 14 March 2011, at the14th Dalai Lama's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader.
Before 2011, theKalön Tripa position was subordinate to the14th Dalai Lama[50] who presided over the government in exile from its founding.[51] In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay received 55 percent of 49,189 votes, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes,[52] becoming the second popularly elected Kalön Tripa. The Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay.[53]
On 20 September 2012, the 15th Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile unanimously voted to change the title of Kalön Tripa toSikyong in Article 19 of the Charter of the Tibetans in exile and relevant articles.[54] The Dalai Lama had previously referred to the Kalön Tripa as Sikyong, and this usage was cited as the primary justification for the name change. According toTibetan Review, "Sikyong" translates to "political leader", as distinct from "spiritual leader".[55] Foreign affairs KalönDicki Chhoyang stated that the term "Sikyong" has had a precedent dating back to the7th Dalai Lama, and that the name change "ensures historical continuity and legitimacy of the traditional leadership from the Fifth Dalai Lama".[56] The online Dharma Dictionary translates sikyong (srid skyong) as "secular ruler; regime, regent".[57] The titlesikyong had previously been used byregents who ruled Tibet during the Dalai Lama's minority.
Having a state religion is not sufficient to mean that a state is a theocracy in the narrow sense of the term. Many countries have a state religion without the government directly deriving its powers from a divine authority or a religious authority which is directly exercising governmental powers. Since few theocracies exist in the modern world, the word "theocracy" is now used as a descriptive term for a government which enforces a state religion.
Sumerian cities were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders including both men and women.[58]
Ancient Egyptian society regarded itspharaohs as divine and associated them withHorus, and after death, withOsiris.[59] While not considered equal to other members of theEgyptian pantheon, the pharaoh had the responsibility of mediating between the gods and the people.[60]
The Japanese people have historically venerated theiremperor as the descendant of theShinto sun-goddessAmaterasu. Through this line of descent, the emperor was seen as a living god who was the supreme leader of the Japanese people. This status only changed with theOccupation of Japan following the end of theSecond World War in 1945: on 1 January 1946 EmperorHirohito, at the request ofDouglas MacArthur,declared that he was not a living god in order for Japan to reorganize into a democratic nation.[61]
In biblical times,Early Israel was akritarchy, ruled byJudges before the institution of a monarchy underSaul. The Israelites regarded the Judges as representatives of God to dispense His judgement, and were often themselves prophets.
Unified religious rule inBuddhist Tibet began in 1642, when theFifth Dalai Lama allied with the military power of the MongolGushri Khan to consolidate political power and to center control around his office as head of theGelug school.[62] This form of government is known as thedual system of government. Prior to 1642, particular monasteries and monks had held considerable power throughout Tibet but had not achieved anything approaching complete control, and their power continued in a diffuse, feudal system after the ascension of the FifthDalai Lama. Power in Tibet was held by a number of traditional élites, including members of the nobility, the heads of the major Buddhist sects (including their varioustulkus), and various large and influential monastic communities.[63]
Similar to the Roman Emperor, theChinese sovereign was historically held to be theSon of Heaven. However, from the first historical Emperor on, this was largely ceremonial and tradition quickly established it as a posthumous dignity, like the Roman institution. The situation beforeQin Shi Huang Di (r. 221–210 BCE) is less clear.
The titles combined byShi Huangdi to form his new title ofemperor were originally applied togod-like beings who ordered the heavens and earth and toculture heroes credited with the invention ofagriculture,clothing,music,astrology, etc. Even after the fall ofQin in 206 BCE, an emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (聖旨) and his written proclamations "directives from above" (上諭).
As a result, someSinologists translate the titlehuangdi (usually rendered"emperor") asthearch. The term properly refers to the head of a thearchy (a kingdom of gods), but the more specific "theocrat" carries associations of a strong priesthood that would be generally inaccurate in describing imperial China. Others reserve the use of the word "thearch" to describe the legendary figures of Chinese prehistory while continuing to use "emperor" to describe historical rulers.[65]
TheSunni Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, aCaliph should be selected or elected by Muslims or by their representatives. Followers ofShia Islam, however, believe a Caliph should be anImam chosen byGod from theAhl al-Bayt (the "Family of the House",Muhammad's direct descendants). In both cases, caliphs theoretically combine religious and secular powers.
The Emperors of theTimurid andMughal dynasty were regarded as intermediaries of their subordinates and God by virtue of the blessings of the Hazrat Ishaans, who were the spiritual guides of the Timurid and Mughal Emperors. The Emperors believed the Hazrat Ishaans to be the rightful spiritual successors of Muhammad and by this virtue to be the intermediaries between God and man.[disputed –discuss][66][67][68]
TheByzantine Empire (a.d. 324–1453) operated underSymphonia, meaning that theemperor was both the head ofcivil society and the ultimate authority over the ecclesiastical authorities, thepatriarchates. The emperor, regarded as God's representative on earth, ruled as an absoluteautocrat.[69]
Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues that "the Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals".[70]Steven Runciman writes in his bookThe Byzantine Theocracy (2004):
The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in His image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments. ...It saw itself as a universal empire. Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God's image, so man's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.[71]
Historians debate the extent to whichGeneva, Switzerland, in the days ofJohn Calvin (1509–64) was a theocracy. On the one hand, Calvin's theology clearly called for separation between church and state. Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics.[72][73]
In nearbyZürich, Switzerland, Protestant reformerHuldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) built a political system that many scholars have called a theocracy, while others have denied it.[74]
The question of theocracy has been debated extensively by historians regarding theLatter-Day Saint communities in Illinois and (especially) in Utah.[75][76][77]
After severe persecution, the Mormons left the United States and resettled in a remote part of what is now Utah, (then part of Mexico). However the United Statestook control in 1848 and would not accept polygamy. The MormonState of Deseret was short-lived.[81] Its original borders stretched from westernColorado to thesouthern California coast. When the Mormons arrived in the valley of theGreat Salt Lake in 1847, theGreat Basin was still a part of Mexico and had no secular government. As a result,Brigham Young administered the region both spiritually and temporally through the highly organized and centralizedMelchizedek Priesthood. This original organization, based upon Joseph Smith's concept oftheodemocracy, instituted a governmental system combining biblical theocracy with mid-19th-century American political ideals.[82][83]
In 1849 the Saints organized a secular government in Utah, although many ecclesiastical leaders maintained their positions of secular power. The Mormons also petitioned Congress to have Deseret admitted into the Union as a state. However, theCompromise of 1850 establishedUtah Territory, and U.S. PresidentMillard Fillmore appointed Brigham Young as governor (in office 1851 to 1858)). In this situation, Young still stood as head of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) as well as of Utah's secular government.
After the abortiveUtah War of 1857–1858, the replacement of Young by an outside Federal Territorial Governor, intense federalprosecution of LDS Church leaders, the eventual resolution of controversies regardingplural marriage, and accession by Utah to statehood, the apparent temporal aspects of LDStheodemocracy receded markedly.[84]
From 1620 until theAmerican Revolution (but with many lingering traces extending into the modern era), Massachusetts colonies operated as strict theocracies, in which every white resident was required to belong to the Congregational (Puritan) Church. The leaders of the communities generally believed that they were carrying out the will of God, and they were often ministers. No religious deviation was tolerated. Any members of other sects were (initially) dispatched to Rhode Island. Later other forms of religious discrimination were uniformly practiced with governmental approval. (Today's Massachusetts and Maine formed one single colony/state until 1820.)
During theAchaemenid Empire (550 to 330 BCE),Zoroastrianism functioned as the state religion, with formalized worship. The Persian kings were known to be pious Zoroastrians and they ruled with a Zoroastrian form of law calledasha.Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire, avoided imposing the Zoroastrian faith on the inhabitants of conquered territory. Cyrus's kindness towards Jews has been cited as sparking Zoroastrian influence onJudaism.[85]
Under theSeleucids (312 to 63 BCE), Zoroastrianism became autonomous. During theSassanid period (224 to 651 CE), theZoroastrian calendar was reformed, image-use in worship was banned,Fire Temples were increasingly built, and intolerance towards other faiths prevailed.[86]
The short rule (1494–1498) ofGirolamo Savonarola, aDominican priest, over the city ofFlorence had features of a theocracy. During his rule, "unchristian" books, statues, poetry, and other items were burned (in theBonfire of the Vanities),sodomy was made a capital offense, and other Christian practices became law.
Quebec under the premiership ofMaurice Duplessis (1936–1939 and 1944–1959) had attributes of aRoman Catholic theocracy. The church controlled education and healthcare, books and films were censored, drive-in movie theatres were illegal, religion had strong influence over civil law (for example, only churches could conduct marriages, and divorce was banned), andJehovah's Witnesses were persecuted. This theocracy ended in 1960 with the beginning of theQuiet Revolution (1960–1966).[87][88]
The state ofTravancore adopted a form of theocracy in the 18th century under the KingMarthanda Varma by donating the country to theHindu deityVishnu, and thereafter rule as the vice-regent of the deity. It is known asThrippadidanam. The holding of the ritual might be a tactics move by the king on the model of the strategies of countries in Europe.[90]
^Wintrobe, Ronald; Padovano, Fabio (2009). "Theocracy, Natural Spiritual Monopoly, and Dictatorship".The Political Economy of Theocracy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 83–118.doi:10.1057/9780230620063_5.ISBN978-1-349-37763-3.
^Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language (1989 edition).
^English form the 17th century (OED).The Greek term is explicitly coined by Josephus and isn't attested elsewhere in Ancient Greek; Josephus marks it as anonce coinage by calling it a "strained expression".W. Whiston tr.Josephus,Against Apion ii. §17 (1814) IV. 340: "He [Moses] ordained our government to be what, by a strained expression, may be termed a Theocracy", translatingὡς δ'ἄν τίς εἴποι, βιασάμενος τὸν λόγον, θεοκρατίαν
^Stephen Palmquist,Biblical Theocracy: A vision of the biblical foundations for a Christian political philosophyArchived 2012-04-14 at theWayback Machine (Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press, 1993), introduced these more precise uses of the terms in arguing that theocracy (in this pure sense) is the only political system defended in the Bible. While Palmquist defends theocracy in this pure form as a viable (though "non-political") political system, he warns that what normally goes by this name is actually ecclesiocracy, the most dangerous of all political systems.
^Miller, William."The "Holy Mountain"".Foreign Affairs.Archived from the original on 2018-11-29. Retrieved27 May 2019.An annex to the treaty of Sèvres of 1920 constituted the twenty monasteries of Mount Athos into a theocratic republic under the suzerainty of Greece [..]
^"Iran – Constitution". International Constitutional Law (ICL). 24 October 1979.Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved21 April 2015.
^article 109 of the constitution states that among the "essential qualifications and conditions for the Leader" are "scholarship, as required for performing the functions of mufti in different fields of fiqh"Chapter 8 – The Leader or Leadership CouncilArchived 2010-11-23 at theWayback Machine Constitution of Iran
^"Who's in Charge?" by Ervand AbrahamianLondon Review of Books, 6 November 2008
^Constitution of IranArchived 2008-04-10 at theWayback Machine, Article 157:In order to fulfill the responsibilities of the judiciary power in all the matters concerning judiciary, administrative and executive areas, the Leader shall appoint a just Mujtahid well versed in judiciary affairs and possessing prudence, and administrative abilities
^Donovan Roebert,Samdhong Rinpoche: Uncompromising Truth for a Compromised World (World Wisdom, 2006)ISBN978-1-933316-20-8 (On August 20, 2001, Venerable Professor Samdhong Rinpoche was elected Kalon Tripa (Prime Minister) of the Tibetan Government in Exile, receiving 84.5% of the popular exile vote.)
^Davidson, Ronald M. (2004). "Tibet". In Buswell, Robert E. Jr. (ed.).Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference. pp. 851–59.ISBN978-0-02-865910-7.
^Batbold, Amarsanaa; Unurbayar, Chadraabal (16 December 2021). "The 1924 Constitution: Towards the Modernisation of Mongolia". In Tan, Kevin Y. L.; Ng, Michael (eds.).Constitutional Foundings in Northeast Asia. Constitutionalism in Asia. Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 211.ISBN9781509940202. Retrieved3 February 2024.In 1911, capitalising on the collapse of the Qing dynasty in China, Mongolia attempted to make itself 'more independent of China'. [...] At this time, as almost a third of Mongolia's male population were Buddhist monks, the Mongols established a theocratic khanate and installed the 8th Bogd Gegeen – the highest-ranked lama of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia – as the Bogd Khaan (or 'Holy Ruler'). He was to rule Mongolia till his death in 1924, afterwhich[sic] Mongolia proclaimed itself a republic and adopted its first socialist-style Constitution.
^abNadeau, Randall L.The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions,pp. 54 ff. John Wiley & Sons (Chichester), 2012.ISBN978-1-4051-9031-2 Accessed 22 December 2013.
^Quinn, D. Michael (2002). "National Culture, Personality, and Theocracy in the Early Mormon Culture of Violence".The John Whitmer Historical Association Journal:159–186.JSTOR43200413.
^Sorokin, Pitirim (2017) [1957]. "Fluctuation of the Theocratic and Secular Forms of Government and Leadership".Social and Cultural Dynamics: A Study of Change in Major Systems of Art, Truth, Ethics, Law and Social Relationships (revised and abridged by the author ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 477.ISBN9781351490603. Retrieved3 February 2024.Likewise theocratic is the regime and leadership of the Ideational tribes of Polynesia or Samoa. The ruling stratum, the aristocracy, and the chief there derive their power from 'holiness' (Heiligkeit); are regarded as incarnated deities; are ascribed all the supersensory halo of power; in brief, the regime and leadership have the essential traits of theocracy.
Dominionism, sacralism and theocracy – Rachel Tabachnik, Dr. John MacArthur, Dr. Martin Erdmann, Rudolf Ebertshäuser, Sarah Leslie, Discernment Ministries Inc. u.v.m, Eds (English + German)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
