Theatre ortheater[a] is a collaborative form ofperforming art that uses live performers, usuallyactors or actresses, to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often astage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations ofgesture, speech, song,music, anddance. It is the oldest form ofdrama, though live theatre has now been joined by modern recorded forms. Elements of art, such as painted scenery andstagecraft such aslighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.[1] Places, normally buildings, where performances regularly take place are also called "theatres" (or "theaters"), as derived from theAncient Greek θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to watch", "to observe").
Atheatre company is an organisation that produces theatrical performances,[3] as distinct from atheatre troupe (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together.[4][5]
Modern theatre includes performances ofplays andmusical theatre. The art forms ofballet andopera are also theatre and use many conventions such asacting, costumes and staging. They were influential in the development ofmusical theatre.
Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and mandatory attendance at theCity Dionysia as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part ofcitizenship.[13] Civic participation also involved the evaluation of therhetoric oforators evidenced in performances in thelaw-court orpolitical assembly, both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.[14][15] The Greeks also developed the concepts ofdramatic criticism and theatre architecture.[16][17][18][failed verification] Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional.[19] Thetheatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types ofdrama:tragedy,comedy, and thesatyr play.[20]
The origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according toAristotle (384–322 BCE), the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing floor (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building area (skene). Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics and clear delivery were paramount. The actors (always men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.[21]
Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type ofdance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.[6][7][8][22][23][e] Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of theHellenistic period.[25][26][7][f]
No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived.[28][29][g] We have complete textsextant byAeschylus,Sophocles, andEuripides.[30][h] The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it wasinstitutionalized in competitions (agon) held as part of festivities celebratingDionysus (thegod ofwine andfertility).[31][32] As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to present atetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.[33][34][i] The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (didaskaliai) begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.[35][33][j]
Most Athenian tragedies dramatize events fromGreek mythology, thoughThe Persians—which stages thePersian response to news of their military defeat at theBattle of Salamis in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.[33][k] When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example ofdrama to survive.[33][37] More than 130 years later, the philosopherAristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work ofdramatic theory—hisPoetics (c. 335 BCE).
Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays ofAristophanes, while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such asAthenaeus of Naucratis). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments ofMenander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster.[l]
In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, the festival also included theSatyr Play. Finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyr's themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken revelry and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified as tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more modern burlesque traditions of the early twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in human affairs, backed by the chorus ofSatyrs. However, according toWebster, satyr actors did not always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical forest creature.[38]
Roman mosaic depicting actors and anaulos player (House of the Tragic Poet,Pompeii).
Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under theRomans. The Roman historianLivy wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance byEtruscanactors.[39] Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.[40] Thetheatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging fromfestival performances ofstreet theatre, nude dancing, andacrobatics, to the staging ofPlautus's broadly appealing situationcomedies, to thehigh-style, verbally elaboratetragedies ofSeneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, theHellenization ofRoman culture in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development ofLatin literature of the highest quality for the stage. The only surviving plays from the Roman Empire are ten dramas attributed toLucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-born Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.[41] These tragedies are known for their philosophical themes, complex characters, and rhetorical style. While Seneca's plays provide valuable insights into Roman theater, they represent only a small fraction of the dramatic repertoire that existed in ancient Rome.
The first form ofIndian theatre was theSanskrit theatre,[42] earliest-surviving fragments of which date from the 1st century CE.[43][44] It began after the development ofGreek andRoman theatre and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.[42] It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in thehistory of India during which hundreds of plays were written.[45][46] The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.[46] The ancientVedas (hymns from between 1500 and 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples ofliterature in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form ofdialogue) and therituals of theVedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.[46] TheMahābhāṣya byPatañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.[47] This treatise ongrammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings oftheatre in India.[47]
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre isA Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed toBharata Muni. TheTreatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addressesacting,dance,music,dramatic construction,architecture,costuming,make-up,props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers amythological account of the origin of theatre.[47] In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.
Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.[43][47] This task was thought of as being analogous to that of apuppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".[47] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.[48] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, theTreatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.[48][m]
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement ofSanskrit literature.[43] It utilisedstock characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialized in a particular type.Kālidāsa in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancientIndia's greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are theMālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra),Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), andAbhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in theMahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated intoEnglish andGerman.Śakuntalā (in English translation) influencedGoethe'sFaust (1808–1832).[43]
TheTang dynasty is sometimes known as "The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as ThePear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are commonly called "Children of the Pear Garden". During the dynasty of Empress Ling,shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on thepuppets, as opposed to the type ofplay performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda.
Japanese forms ofKabuki,Nō, andKyōgen developed in the 17th century CE.[49]
Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic colour was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the belly of a donkey). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colourful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet and then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods are attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric-lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government.
In theSong dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in theYuan dynasty into a more sophisticated form known aszaju, with a four- or five-act structure. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the best known of which isPeking Opera which is still popular today.
Xiangsheng is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue.
InIndonesia, theatre performances have become an important part of local culture, theatre performances in Indonesia have been developed for thousands of years. Most ofIndonesia's oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominentpuppet theatres—wayang golek (wooden rod-puppet play) of theSundanese andwayang kulit (leather shadow-puppet play) of theJavanese andBalinese—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of theRamayana andMahabharata. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) ofJava andBali, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, calledmenak.[50][51]Wayang is an ancient form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate puppet/human and complex musical styles.[52] The earliest evidence is from the late 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.[53] The oldest known record that concerns wayang is from the 9th century. Around 840 AD an Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala fromMataram Kingdom inCentral Java mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit means Wayang puppet show, Atapukan means Mask dance show, and abanwal means joke art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure.
Theatre took on many alternative forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, includingcommedia dell'arte fromItalian theatre, andmelodrama. The general trend was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and theRenaissance and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially following theIndustrial Revolution.[55]
Theatre took a big pause during 1642 and 1660 in England because of thePuritan Interregnum.[56] The rising anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans sawWilliam Prynne writeHistriomastix (1633), the most notorious attack on theatre prior to the ban.[56] Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered theclosure of London theatres in 1642.[57] On 24 January 1643, the actors protested against the ban by writing a pamphlet titledThe Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.[58] This stagnant period ended once Charles II came back to the throne in 1660 in theRestoration. Theatre (among other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign.
One of the big changes was the new theatre house. Instead of the type of the Elizabethan era, such as theGlobe Theatre, round with no place for the actors to prepare for the next act and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a place of refinement, with a stage in front and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way around the stage, it became prioritized—some seats were obviously better than others. The king would have the best seat in the house: the very middle of the theatre, which got the widest view of the stage as well as the best way to see the point of view and vanishing point that the stage was constructed around.Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg was one of the most influential set designers of the time because of his use of floor space and scenery.
Because of the turmoil before this time, there was still some controversy about what should and should not be put on the stage.Jeremy Collier, a preacher, was one of the heads in this movement through his pieceA Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held by non-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the time. The main question was if seeing something immoral on stage affects behaviour in the lives of those who watch it, a controversy that is still playing out today.[60]
The seventeenth century had also introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate earlier. These women were regarded as celebrities (also a newer concept, thanks to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake ofRenaissance Humanism), but on the other hand, it was still very new and revolutionary that they were on the stage, and some said they were unladylike, and looked down on them. Charles II did not like young men playing the parts of young women, so he asked that women play their own parts.[61] Because women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more leeway with plot twists, like women dressing as men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy.
Billing for a British theatre in 1829
Comedies were full of the young and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their love lives: commonly a young roguish hero professing his love to the chaste and free minded heroine near the end of the play, much likeSheridan'sThe School for Scandal. Many of the comedies were fashioned after the French tradition, mainly Molière, again hailing back to the French influence brought back by the King and the Royals after their exile.Molière was one of the top comedic playwrights of the time, revolutionizing the way comedy was written and performed by combining Italiancommedia dell'arte andneoclassical French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and most influential satiric comedies.[62] Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political power, especially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.[63] They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger distinction between comedy and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Common forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies as well as something that would later be calledtragédie bourgeoise, ordomestic tragedy—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more popular in England because they appealed more to English sensibilities.[64]
Considered as a genre ofpoetry in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with theepic and thelyrical modes ever sinceAristotle'sPoetics (c. 335 BCE); the earliest work ofdramatic theory.[n] The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specifictype ofplay dates from the19th century. Drama in this sense refers to a play that isneither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example,Zola'sThérèse Raquin (1873) orChekhov'sIvanov (1887). In Ancient Greece however, the worddrama encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or anything in between.
Drama is often combined withmusic anddance: the drama inopera is generally sung throughout;musicals generally include both spokendialogue andsongs; and some forms of drama haveincidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and JapaneseNō, for example).[o] In certain periods of history (the ancientRoman and modernRomantic) some dramas have been written to beread rather than performed.[p] Inimprovisation, the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.[q]
Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate scaleOff-Broadway, inregional theatres, and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For instance,Broadway andWest End musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets.
Theatre productions that usehumour as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modernfarce such asBoeing Boeing or a classical play such asAs You Like It. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboo subject matter in a deliberately humorous way is referred to asblack comedy. Black Comedy can have several genres like slapstick humour, dark and sarcastic comedy.
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude: in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.
Aristotle's phrase "several kinds being found in separate parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in theAttic dialect whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in theDoric dialect, these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins andpoetic metres of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatricaldrama.
Improvisation has been a consistent feature of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century being recognized as the first improvisation form. Popularized by1997 Nobel Prize in Literature winnerDario Fo and troupes such as theUpright Citizens Brigade improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many different streams and philosophies.
Keith Johnstone andViola Spolin are recognized as the first teachers of improvisation in modern times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation as an alternative to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally as a tool for developing dramatic work or skills or as a form for situational comedy. Spolin also became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.[81]
Spolin's son,Paul Sills popularized improvisational theatre as a theatrical art form when he founded, as its first director,The Second City in Chicago.
Stanislavski treated the theatre as anart-form that isautonomous fromliterature and one in which theplaywright's contribution should be respected as that of only one of an ensemble of creative artists.[86][87][88][89][t] His innovative contribution to modern acting theory has remained at the core of mainstreamwestern performance training for much of the last century.[90][91][92][93][94] That many of the precepts of hissystem of actor training seem to be common sense and self-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.[95] Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.[95] Thanks to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and developed an international reach, dominating debates about acting in Europe and the United States.[90][96][97][98] Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the North AmericanMethod, although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic andpsychophysical approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and body as parts of a continuum.[99][100]
Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision.
Theatre Mechanical Curtain Puller
In its most basic form, stagecraft is managed by a single person (often the stage manager of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the cast. At a more professional level, for example in modern Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many subdisciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies between these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs.
There are many modern theatre movements which produce theatre in a variety of ways. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in community theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre can be performed with a shoestring budget or on a grand scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre subcategories, which include:
Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more on the reputation of the group than on an individual star actor. It also typically relies less on strict control by a director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can respond to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.[101]
A theatre company is an organisation that produces theatrical performances,[3] as distinct from atheatre troupe (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together.[4]
Atouring company is an independent theatre or dance company that travels, often internationally, being presented at a different theatre venue in each city.[citation needed]
In order to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and atheatre venue are needed. When a theatre company is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as dance companies, who do not have their own theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no full-time resident companies. They do, however, sometimes have one or more part-time resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who arrange to use the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to support their work by presenting them on their stage.[citation needed]
Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and includestreet theatre, andsite-specific theatre. Non-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or can accommodate different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.[102]
Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance, an Australian union created in 1992 as a merger of the unions covering actors, journalists and entertainment industry employees[105]
^Originally spelledtheatre andteatre. From around 1550 to 1700 or later, the most common spelling wastheater. Between 1720 and 1750,theater was dropped inBritish English, but was either retained or revived inAmerican English (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 2009, CD-ROM:ISBN978-0-19-956383-8). Recent dictionaries of American English listtheatre as a less common variant, e.g.,Random House Webster's College Dictionary (1991);The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (2006);New Oxford American Dictionary, third edition (2010);Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011).
^Drawing on the "semiotics" ofCharles Sanders Peirce, Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their ability to usethe three possible functions of signs: asicon (mimetically), asindex (in the situation ofenunciation), or as symbol (as asemiological system in the fictional mode). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and concrete: it indicatesand incarnates a fictional world by means of signs, such that by the end of the process of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."[2]
^Brown writes thatancient Greek drama "was essentially the creation ofclassical Athens: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of theAthenian democracy), and all the surviving plays date from this period".[6] "The dominant culture ofAthens in the fifth century", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre".[8]
^Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian citizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "own regime of display and regulation", nevertheless the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activity".[12]
^Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".[24]
^Cartledge writes that althoughAthenians of the 4th century judgedAeschylus,Sophocles, andEuripides "as the nonpareils of thegenre, and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-livedgolden age. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of thedemocracy—and beyond it".[27]
^We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have theCyclops, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—Rhesus—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.)
^The theory thatPrometheus Bound was not written byAeschylus adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.
^Exceptions to this pattern were made, as withEuripides'Alcestis in 438 BCE. There were also separate competitions at theCity Dionysia for the performance ofdithyrambs and, after 488–87 BCE,comedies.
^Rush Rehm offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at theCity Dionysia was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do withEleutherae', a town on the border betweenBoeotia andAttica that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some pointAthens annexed Eleutherae—most likely after the overthrow of thePeisistratid tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms ofCleisthenes in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from thetemple near thetheatre of Dionysus and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, aftersacrifice andhymns, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god's arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their own political liberation and democratic reforms."[36]
^Jean-Pierre Vernant argues that inThe PersiansAeschylus substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and theage of heroes a spatial distance between the Western audience and the EasternPersian culture. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).
^Aristotle,Poetics,line 1449a: "Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful'."
^The literal meaning ofabhinaya is "to carry forwards".
^Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, as distinguished from alyric, is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; thewords result, as one might put it, from the underlyingstructure of incident andcharacter. AsAristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker ofplots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because heimiates, and what he imitates areactions'" (1949, 8).
^See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" inBanham 1998
^While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the RomanSeneca were not intended to be performed.Manfred byByron is a good example of a "dramatic poem". See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" inBanham 1998.
^Some forms of improvisation, notably theCommedia dell'arte, improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (seeGordon 1983 andDuchartre 1966). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated withJoan Littlewood andKeith Johnstone in the UK andViola Spolin in the US; seeJohnstone 2007 andSpolin 1999.
^In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his body on the stage" and that the "score of an opera is not the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made flesh and blood on stage"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).
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