Vedas areśruti ("what is heard"),[16] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are calledsmr̥ti ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to beapauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[17] and "impersonal, authorless",[18][19][20] revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard by ancientsages after intense meditation.[21][22]
The Vedas have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE with the help of elaboratemnemonic techniques.[23][24][25] The mantras, the oldest part of the Vedas, are recited in the modern age for theirphonology rather than thesemantics, and are considered to be "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[26] By reciting them thecosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base."[26]
The variousIndian philosophies andHindu sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy that acknowledge the importance or primal authority of the Vedas compriseHindu philosophy specifically and are together classified as the six "orthodox" (āstika) schools.[note 2] However,śramaṇa traditions, such asCharvaka,Ajivika,Buddhism, andJainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authoritative, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[15][27]
Etymology and usage
TheSanskrit wordvéda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the rootvid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from theProto-Indo-European root*weyd-, meaning "see" or "know".[28][29]
The noun is from Proto-Indo-European*weydos, cognate toGreek(ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form" . This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tensevéda, cognate to Greek(ϝ)οἶδα ((w)oida) "I know". Root cognates are Greekἰδέα, Englishwit,Latinvideō "I see",Russian ве́дать (védat') "to know", etc.[30]
The Sanskrit termveda as a common noun means "knowledge".[28] The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of theRigveda, means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",[31] while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or forritual fire.[32]
TheSamhitas (Sanskritsaṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: theRig-Veda,Yajur-Veda,Sama-Veda andAtharva-Veda, most of which are available in severalrecensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the termVeda is used to refer only to these Samhitas, the collection of mantras. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, which were composed betweenc. 1500–1200 BCE (Rig Veda book 2–9),[note 1] and 1200–900 BCE for the otherSamhitas. The Samhitas contain invocations to deities likeIndra andAgni, "to secure their benediction for success in battles or for welfare of the clan."[34] The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected inBloomfield'sVedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000padas (metrical feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[35]
TheBrahmanas are prose texts that comment on and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.[36][37] The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as theShatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.[38][39] The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
TheAranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.[40] It is frequently read in secondary literature.
OlderPrincipal Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka,Chandogya,Kaṭha,Kena,Aitareya, and others),[1][41] composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.[42] TheUpanishads are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[43][44] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are still influential in Hinduism.[43][45]
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the laterUpanishads and theSutra literature, such asShrauta Sutras andGryha Sutras, which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[1][note 3][note 4]
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.[46] TheBrahmanas,Aranyakas, andUpanishads, among other things, interpret and discuss theSamhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducingVedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of laterHinduism. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such asAdi Shankara to classify each Veda intokarma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड, action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, theSamhitas andBrahmanas); andjnana-kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads').[47][48][49][50][51][note 5]
Śruti and smṛti
Vedas areśruti ("what is heard"),[16] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are calledsmṛti ("what is remembered"). This indigenous system of categorization was adopted byMax Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. AsAxel Michaels explains:
These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not onlyone collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads [...] are sometimes not to be distinguished fromĀraṇyakas [...];Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to theSaṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[41]
Hindus consider the Vedas to beapauruṣeyā, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[17] and "impersonal, authorless".[18][19][20] The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancientsages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.[21][22] In the Hindu EpicMahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited toBrahma.[52] The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created byRishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.[22][note 6]
The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in theVedic period for several millennia.[23][65][66] The authoritative transmission[67] of the Vedas is by anoral tradition in asampradaya from father to son or from teacher (guru) to student (shishya),[23][24][66][68][69] believed to be initiated by the Vedicrishis who heard theprimordial sounds.[70] Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.[68][note 8] As Leela Prasad states, "According toShankara, the "correct tradition" (sampradaya) has as much authority as the written Shastra", explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge".[71]
The emphasis in this transmission[note 9] is on the "proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds", as prescribed in theShiksha,[73] theVedanga (Vedic study) of sound as uttered in a Vedic recitation,[74][75] mastering the texts "literally forward and backward in fully acoustic fashion".[67] Houben and Rath note that the Vedic textual tradition cannot simply be characterized as oral, "since it also depends significantly on a memory culture".[76] The Vedas were preserved with precision with the help of elaboratemnemonic techniques,[23][24][25] such as memorizing the texts in eleven different modes of recitation (pathas),[67] using the alphabet as amnemotechnical device,[77][78][note 10] "matching physical movements (such as nodding the head) with particular sounds and chanting in a group"[79] and visualizing sounds by usingmudras (hand signs).[80] This provided an additional visual confirmation, and also an alternate means to check the reading integrity by the audience, in addition to the audible means.[80] Houben and Rath note that a strong "memory culture" existed in ancient India when texts were transmitted orally, before the advent of writing in the early first millennium CE.[78] According toStaal, criticising theGoody-Watt hypothesis "according to which literacy is more reliable than orality",[81] this tradition of oral transmission "is closely related to Indian forms of science" and "by far the more remarkable" than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission.[note 11]
While according to Mookerji,understanding the meaning (vedarthajnana[84] orartha-bodha[85][note 12]) of the words of the Vedas was part of theVedic learning,[85] Holdrege and other Indologists[86] have noted that in the transmission of theSamhitas, the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (śabda) and not on the meaning (artha) of the mantras.[86][87][68] Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people",[87][note 13] andniruktas, etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.[87][89] According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning".[86][note 14] The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred",[90] and "do not constitutelinguistic utterances".[26] Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they becomemagical sounds, "means to an end".[note 15] Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless".[91] In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[26] By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of themantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."[26][note 16] Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked", which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding".[92]
A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise ofBuddhism in theMaurya period,[note 17] perhaps earliest in theKanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active.[65]Jack Goody has argued for an earlier literary tradition, concluding that the Vedas bear hallmarks of a literate culture along with oral transmission,[94][95] but Goody's views have been strongly criticised by Falk, Lopez Jr,. and Staal, though they have also found some support.[96][97]
The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,[23][65][98] but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.[67] Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting insmriti rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.[65] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[99] TheSampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;[100] however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts inNepal that are dated from the 11th century onwards.[101]
The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called theVedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as atTaxila,Nalanda andVikramashila.[102][103][104][105] According to Deshpande, "the tradition of theSanskrit grammarians also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts."[106]Yāska (4th c. BCE[107]) wrote theNirukta, which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras,[note 13] whilePāṇinis (4th c. BCE)Aṣṭādhyāyī is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions.Mimamsa scholarSayanas (14th c. CE) majorVedartha Prakasha[note 18] is a rare[108] commentary on the Vedas, which is also referred to by contemporary scholars.[109]
Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth aboutgods,dharma andparabrahman."[110][111][note 19] Thepūrva-kāņda (orkarma-kanda), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge ofdharma, "which brings us satisfaction." Theuttara-kanda (orjnana-kanda),[note 20] the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge ofParabrahma, "which fulfills all of our desires."[112] According to Holdrege, for the exponents ofkarma-kandha the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of thejnana-kanda and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.[113]
Holdrege notes that in Vedic learning "priority has been given to recitation over interpretation" of the Samhitas.[108] Galewicz states that Sayana, aMimamsa scholar,[114][115][116] "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use", noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form."[117] According to Galewicz, Sayana saw the purpose (artha) of the Veda as the "artha of carrying out sacrifice", giving precedence to theYajurveda.[114] For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage.[117] This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns."[118] MostŚrauta rituals are not performed in the modern era, and those that are, are rare.[119]
Mukherjee notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of theŖik (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge ofdharma andParabrahman.[120] Mukherjee concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension oftheir meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."[121] Mookei refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts,akshara-praptī, is followed byartha-bodha, perception of their meaning."[85][note 12] Mukherjee explains that the Vedic knowledge was first perceived by therishis andmunis. Only the perfect language of the Vedas, as in contrast to ordinary speech, can reveal these truths, which were preserved by committing them to memory.[123] According to Mukherjee, while these truths are imparted to the student by the memorized texts,[124] "the realization ofTruth" and the knowledge ofparamatman as revealed to therishis is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.[125] The supreme knowledge of the Absolute,para Brahman-jnana, the knowledge ofrta andsatya, can be obtained by taking vows of silence and obedience[126] sense-restraint,dhyana, the practice oftapas (austerities),[111] and discussing theVedanta.[126][note 21]
The four Vedas were transmitted in variousśākhās (branches, schools).[128][129] Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.[129] Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions (revisions) are known for each of the Vedas.[128] Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region calledVideha, in modern northBihar, south ofNepal.[130] The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.[129]
There were Vedic schools that believed inpolytheism in which numerous gods had different natural functions,henotheistic beliefs where only one god was worshipped but others were thought to exist,monotheistic beliefs in a singlegod,agnosticism, andmonistic beliefs where "there is an absolute reality that goes beyond the gods and that includes or transcends everything that exists."[131]Indra,Agni, andYama were popular subjects of worship by polytheist organizations.[131]
Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.[132][133] The Vedas each have an Index orAnukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index orSarvānukramaṇī.[134][135]
Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[136] For example, memorization of the sacredVedas included up to elevenforms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included thejaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.[137] That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, theRigveda, asredacted into a single text during theBrahmana period, without any variant readings within that school.[137]
The Vedas were orally transmitted by memorization, and were written down only after 500 BCE,[23][65][98] All printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century CE.[138]
Four Vedas
The Vedas Share by size
Rig (51.78%)
Yajur (9.69%)
Sama (9.2%)
Atharva (29.33%)
The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz.,[139]
Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī vidyā"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).[140][141] The Rig Veda most likely was composed betweenc. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.[note 1] Witzel notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.[129]
Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – theSamhitas (mantras and benedictions), theAranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), theBrahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and theUpanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[9][11][12] TheUpasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars[13][14] as the fifth part.Witzel notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.[142]
Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.[130] Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.[143]
The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodoxsramana-traditions.[15]
Who really knows? Who can here proclaim it? Whence, whence this creation sprang? Gods came later, after the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, He only knows, or perhaps He does not know.
The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra,Soma and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[129]
The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened both the position of the Brahmans and the kings.[149] TheRajasuya rituals, performed with the coronation of a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe."[150] In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books toNasadiya Sukta with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",[144] the virtue ofDāna (charity) in society,[151] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.[note 22]
There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.[152]
TheYajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras.[153] It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before theyajna fire.[153] The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period ofVedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE – younger than theRigveda, and roughly contemporary with theAtharvaveda, the RigvedicKhilani, and theSāmaveda.[154] Witzel dates the Yajurvedahymns to the early IndianIron Age, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.[155] corresponding to the earlyKuru Kingdom.[156]
A page from theTaittiriya Samhita, a layer of text within theYajurveda
The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurvedasamhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses inRigveda.[157] Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically.[158] The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.[159]
There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (Krishna) and the "White" (Shukla). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.[160] The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (theShatapatha Brahmana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).[161][162] The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools ofHindu philosophy.[163][164]
The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).[166] A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in thearcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.[166]
In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.[167] Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[168] Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of theudgātṛ or "singer" priests.[169]
TheArtharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to theAtharvan andAngirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[170] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[170] Two different versions of the text – thePaippalāda and theŚaunakīya – have survived into the modern times.[170][171] The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE.[172][173] It was compiled last,[174] probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[2] or earlier.[170]
The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",[175] an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.[176] TheSamhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition ofmagico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.[177][178] The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".[179] Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and totheosophy.[176]
The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage –marriage andcremation. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.[180]
Embedded Vedic texts
Manuscripts of the Vedas are in the Sanskrit language, but in many regional scripts in addition to theDevanagari. Top:Grantha script (Tamil Nadu), Below:Malayalam script (Kerala).
The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.[36] They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.[36][37] Each regional Vedicshakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.[181] A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with theRigveda, six with theYajurveda, ten with theSamaveda and one with theAtharvaveda. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as theShatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.[38][39] According toJan Gonda, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).[182]
The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritualsuktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.[183][184] The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering aYajna oblation toAgni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.[183][185] The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.[183] The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows andartha.[183] However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.[186]
The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.[14][40]
Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.[40] They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the wordAranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those inVanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-basedAshrama system of human life.[187]
The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to asVedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[188] The central concern of the Upanishads are the connections "between parts of the human organism and cosmic realities."[189] The Upanishads intend to create a hierarchy of connected and dependent realities, evoking a sense of unity of "the separate elements of the world and of human experience [compressing] them into a single form."[190] The concepts ofBrahman, the Ultimate Reality from which everything arises, andĀtman, the essence of the individual, are central ideas in theUpanishads,[191][192] and knowing the correspondence between Ātman and Brahman as "the fundamental principle which shapes the world" permits the creation of an integrative vision of the whole.[190][192] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions,[43][193] and of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.[43][194]
Aranyakas are sometimes identified askarma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified asjnana-kanda (spirituality section).[48][49][50][note 5] In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are calledSamhitas and the commentary are called theBrahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonialkarma-kanda, whileAranyakas andUpanishads are referred to as thejnana-kanda.[51]
The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas,[195] composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.[196] The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.[196]
The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics (Śikṣā), poetic meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyākaraṇa), etymology and linguistics (Nirukta), rituals and rites of passage (Kalpa), time keeping and astronomy (Jyotiṣa).[197][198][199]
Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools ofHindu philosophy.[200][201][202] The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.[196][203]
Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: theSamhitas,Brahmanas,Aranyakas andSutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with theAtharvaveda is extensive.
TheĀśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with theRigveda canon.
TheGobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
TheKātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed toKātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (theCaraṇavyūha) and theKātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.
TheKṛṣṇaYajurveda has 3 parisistas TheĀpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the secondpraśna of theSatyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', theVārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[204]
Upaveda
The termupaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[205][206] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources.TheCharanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:[207]
Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas,Brahma framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.
— First chapter ofNātyaśāstra, Abhinaya Darpana[213][214]
"Divya Prabandha", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonicalTamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.[215][216]
ThePuranas is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.[218] Several of these texts are named after majorHindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.[219][220] There are 18Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.[218]
The Puranas have been influential in theHindu culture.[221][222] They are consideredVaidika (congruent with Vedic literature).[223] TheBhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is ofnon-dualistic tenor.[224][225] The Puranic literature wove with theBhakti movement in India, and bothDvaita andAdvaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in theMaha Puranas.[226]
Vedas in Sangam literature
Vedas finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The Vedas were read by almost every caste in ancientTamil Nadu. An Indianhistorian,archaeologist andepigraphist namedRamachandran Nagaswamy mentions that Tamil Nadu was a land of Vedas and a place where everyone knew the Vedas.[227] The Vedas are also considered as a text filled with deep meaning which can be understood only by scholars.[228] ThePurananuru mentions that the ancestors of Velir kings where born from theSacred fire of a Northern sage[229] and thePaṭṭiṉappālai mentions that the four Vedas were chanted by the priests of Ancient Tamilakam,[230] this shows chanting of Vedas and growing sacred fires are part of the Tamil culture.Vedas are calledMaṛai orVaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery".Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai mentions ayupa post (a form of Vedic altar) in theBrahmin village.[231] Vedas are recited by these Brahmins, and even their parrots are mentioned in the poem as those who sing the Vedic hymns. People in these Vedic villages did not eat meat, nor raise fowls. They ate rice, salad leaves boiled in ghee, pickles and vegetables.[232][233] Apart from the Sanskrit Vedas there are other texts likeNaalayira Divya Prabandham andTevaram called as Tamil Veda and Dravida Veda.[234][215]
Authority of the Vedas
The variousHindu sects andIndian philosophies have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).[note 23] Otherśramaṇa traditions, such asCharvaka,Ajivika,Buddhism andJainism, which do not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[15][27]
Certain traditions which are often seen as being part of Hinduism also rejected the Vedas. For example, authors of the tantricVaishnava Sahajiya tradition, like Siddha Mukundadeva, rejected the Vedas' authority.[236] Likewise, some tantric Shaiva Agamas reject the Vedas. TheAnandabhairava-tantra for example, states that "the wise man should not elect as his authority the word of the Vedas, which is full of impurity, produces but scanty and transitory fruits and is limited."[237]
Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu",[238][note 24] and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."[239] Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.[240]
The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century,Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit forIndo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in theSacred Books of the East series edited byMüller between 1879 and 1910.[244]Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.
Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62]Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247]
^Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are notdeontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontologicalepistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."Freschi 2012, p. 62 This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
^For a table of all Vedic texts seeWitzel 2003, pp. 100–101.
^The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated inA Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976.
^abEdward Roer (Translator),Shankara's Introduction atGoogle Books toBrihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."
^"As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! this hymn for thee have fashioned. If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters". –Rigveda 5.2.11, Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith[53]
^Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries.[2]
^Broo 2016, p. 92 quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja.
^Of the complete Veda, bypāțha-śālā (priestly schools), as distinguished from the transmission in thepūjā, the daily services.[72]
^Several authors refer to the Chinese Buddhist Monk I-Tsing, who visited India in the 7th century to retrieve Buddhist texts and gave examples of mnemonic techniques used in India:[77] "In India there are two traditional ways in which one can attain great intellectual power. Firstly by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect is developed; secondly the alphabet fixes (to) one's ideas. By this way, after a practice of ten days or a month, a student feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has heard once."[78][77]
^Staal: [this tradition of oral transmission is] "by far the more remarkable [than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission], not merely because it is characteristically Indian and unlike anything we find elsewhere, but also because it has led to scientific discoveries that are of enduring interest and from which the contemporary West still has much to learn."Schiffman (2012, p. 171), quotingStaal (1986, p. 27) Staal argued that the ancient Indian grammarians, especiallyPāṇini, had completely mastered methods of linguistic theory not rediscovered again until the 1950s and the applications of modern mathematical logic to linguistics byNoam Chomsky. (Chomsky himself has said that the firstgenerative grammar in the modern sense was Panini's grammar).[82] These early Indian methods allowed the construction of discrete, potentially infinite generative systems. Remarkably, these early linguistic systems were codified orally, though writing was then used to develop them in some way. The formal basis for Panini's methods involved the use of "auxiliary" markers, rediscovered in the 1930s by the logicianEmil Post.[83]
^abArtha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.[122]
^abKlostermaier 2007, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in theNirukta byYāska (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."
The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of theChandogya Upanishad (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.[88]
^According to Holdrege,srotriyas (a group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters ofsruti[67]) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting theSamhitas, merely preserving the sound of the text.[86]
^Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the rootbŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reifiedspeech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end."Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotesDeshpande 1990, p. 4.
^Coward 2008, p. 114: "For theMimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."
^The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.[93]
^Literally, "the meaning of the Vedas made manifest."
^Mookerji also refers to the Uśanā smriti (81-2), which "states that mastery of mere text of Veda is to be followed up by its meaning" by discussing the Vedanta.[126] where-after they were able to engage in doscourses on the Vedas.[127][92]
^For example, Hymn 1.164.34, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?" Hymn 1.164.34, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?" Hymn 1.164.5, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?" Hymn 1.164.6, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on."; Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man,ISBN978-0-595-26925-9, pp. 64–69; Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 134–135; Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource
^Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are notdeontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontologicalepistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."[235] This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.
^abcGavin Flood (1996),An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-43878-0, pp. 35–39
^Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J.A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
^abA Bhattacharya (2006),Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology,ISBN978-0-595-38455-6, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-533261-2, p. 285
^abJan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2
^according toISKCON,Hindu Sacred TextsArchived 26 March 2009 at theWayback Machine, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)."
^abcdWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,ISBN978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210
^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
^Walton, Linda (2015)."Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122.ISBN978-0-521-19074-9.
^Sukumar Dutt (1988) [1962].Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London.ISBN81-208-0498-8. pp. 332–333
^See: • Sanskrit English Dictionary University of Kloen, Germany (2009) • Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4,ISBN81-208-0310-8, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17)
^Original text translated in English:The Rig Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); C Chatterjee (1995),Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3–12
^For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491–499.
^Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-1321-2, pp. 52–53
^"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, – hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on."Zaehner 1966, p. vii.
^Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, inThe Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge,ISBN0-415-21527-7, p. 38
^abJan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas".
^On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health:Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26; On finding a good husband:Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130–6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships:Atharva Veda 6.3.30 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;
^Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge,ISBN978-1-56000-076-1, pp. x–xii
^abPT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-88706-139-4, pp. 35–36
^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,ISBN978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210
^Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
^Coormaraswamy and Duggirala (1917).The Mirror of Gesture. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–4.
^abJohn Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-09305-5, pp. 259–261
^Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press,ISBN978-0-87249-965-2, pp. 43, 117–119
^Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism:Past and Present, Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012),Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008),Hinduism, p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers.
^Muhammad Khalid Masud (2000).Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʻat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal. BRILL. p. 50.ISBN978-90-04-11622-1.
^Nagappa 2011, p. 283 ("It is said that the Varna system [...] Sanatan Hindu").
^Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002).The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-312-29309-3. Source:[1] (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p. 44
Anthony, David W. (2007),The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
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Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2013), "Nālandā",The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton: Princeton University Press,ISBN978-1-4008-4805-8
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", inChemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.),History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 137–157,doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7,ISBN978-1-4020-2320-0
Freschi, Elisa (2012),Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, Brill,ISBN978-90-04-22260-1
Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.),Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Galewicz, Cezary (2011), "Why Should the Flower of Dharma be Invisible? Sayana's Vision of the Unity of the Veda", in Squarcini, Federico (ed.),Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, Anthem Press
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Klostermaier, Klaus (1994),A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-2109-3
Klostermaier, Klaus (2007),A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-7082-4
Knapp, Stephen (2005),The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination, iUniverse,ISBN978-0-595-35075-9
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Prasad, Leela (2007),Poetics of conduct : oral narrative and moral being in a South Indian town, New York: Columbia University Press,ISBN978-0-231-13921-2
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Zaehner, R. C. (1966),Hindu Scriptures, Everyman's Library, London: J. M. Dent
Further reading
Overviews
Gonda, J. (1975),Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads, Wiesnaden: Harrassowitz: A History of Indian literature,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2.
Santucci, J.A. (1976), "An Outline of Vedic Literature",Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion.
Shrava, S. (1977),A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature – Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan.
Bandhu, Vishva; Dev, Bhim (1963), Bhaskaran Nair, S. (ed.),Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Hoshiarpur: Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute.
Griffiths, Arlo (2004), Houben, Jan E.M. (ed.),The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen : Forsten: Groningen Oriental Studies 20,ISBN90-6980-149-3.
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