The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with thedecolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was created as theBritish Commonwealth of Nations through theBalfour Declaration at the1926 Imperial Conference,[8] and formalised by the United Kingdom through theStatute of Westminster in 1931. In 1949, theLondon Declaration allowed India to remain in the Commonwealth as a republic, marking a significant evolution of the association.[9][10]
Queen Elizabeth II, in her address to Canada onDominion Day in 1959, pointed out that theConfederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations."[13] As long ago as 18 January 1884Lord Rosebery, while visitingAdelaide,South Australia, had described the changing British Empire, as some of its coloniesbecame more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".[14][15] Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically fromthe first one in 1887, leading to the creation of theImperial Conferences in 1911.[16][17]
The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented byJan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence"[18] at theParis Peace Conference of 1919, attended by delegates from the Dominions as well as the United Kingdom.[19][20] The term first received imperial statutory recognition in theAnglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the termBritish Commonwealth of Nations was substituted forBritish Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of theIrish Free State.[21]
In theBalfour Declaration at the1926 Imperial Conference, the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed that they were "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations." The term 'Commonwealth' was officially adopted to describe the community.[22]
These aspects of the relationship were formalised by theStatute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand andNewfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and the need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as itstenth province in 1949.[23] Australia and New Zealandratified the statute in 1942 and1947 respectively.[24][25]
Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — theStatus of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by theParliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate the Statute of Westminster into thelaw of South Africa.[26]
After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whetherCommonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governingBritish overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following theLondon Declaration, the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature.[30]
Burma (Myanmar since 1989) andAden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former Britishprotectorates andmandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932),Transjordan (1946),Palestine (part of which became the State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956),British Somaliland (which united with the formerItalian Somaliland in 1960 to form theSomali Republic), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971).[31]
The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on the highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace".[32] However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles underminedJoseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition, the United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore.[33] While British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, arguesKrishnan Srinivasan. Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also:Commonwealth diaspora).[34]
The term "New Commonwealth" gained usage in the UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recentlydecolonised countries, predominantly non-white anddeveloping countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries.[35] The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", or more pointedly as the "white Commonwealth",[36] in reference to what had been known as the "White Dominions".[37]
On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the IrishRepublic of Ireland Act 1948; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth.[38] While Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at aCommonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under theLondon Declaration, as drafted byV. K. Krishna Menon, India agreed, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, KingGeorge VI toldMenon: "So, I've become 'as such'."[39] Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, while others, such asGuyana,Mauritius andDominica, have remained members.[40]
We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At the same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it.[41]
The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, orconstitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. While some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became (or had already become) essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separatelegal personality in each realm, even though the same person is monarch of each realm.[42][43][44][45]
At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became theEuropean Union, and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime MinisterAnthony Eden, considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone while also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth.[46][47][48]
At the time of theSuez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime ministerGuy Mollet proposed to British prime ministerAnthony Eden that their two countries bejoined in a "union". When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangementon the Irish basis". These ideas faded away with the end of the Suez Crisis.[49][50][51]
The first member admitted without any constitutional link to the British Empire wasMozambique – a formerPortuguese colony – in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Its entry preceded theEdinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.[52] In 2009, Rwanda became the second country admitted to the Commonwealth without any constitutional links to Britain. It was aBelgian trust territory that had been a district ofGerman East Africa untilWorld War I.[53]
In 2022,Togo, a former French mandate territory, andGabon, a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule.[54] Togolese Foreign MinisterRobert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learnEnglish, as well as expand their access to education and culture. Dussey also remarked that the country sought closer ties with theAnglophone world.[55] Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023following a military coup, with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for the country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered.[56][57]
Commonwealth relations saw renewed interest during the second term of United States presidentDonald Trump. In 2025, duringRussia's invasion of Ukraine, Commonwealth countries Australia, Canada and New Zealand aligned themselves with the"coalition of the willing" spearheaded by British prime ministerKeir Starmer to provide support forUkraine.[58][59][60] In Canada, during the 2025Liberal Party leadership contest, and in light of aggressive actions taken by the United States, the ultimate victorMark Carney expressed support for deepening relations with Britain, Australia and New Zealand.[61] Donald Trump expressed interest in the United States becoming a member or associate member.[62]
The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennialCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), whereCommonwealth Heads of Government, including (among others)prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to theCommonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, theImperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs.[63]
The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called thechair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM.[66]
TheCommonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation among member governments and countries.[67] It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in theUnited Nations General Assembly by the Secretariat as anobserver. The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values.[68]
Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in theCaribbean, grantthe right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens.[69] Some countries, including the United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens.[70][71][72] Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens wereBritish subjects.[73][74][75] Citizenship laws evolved as the Commonwealth developed from the Empire. In Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in theHigh Court case ofSue v Hill, the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power".[76] Similarly, inNolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens" though they were subjects of the Queen.[77]
Commonwealth citizens may receiveconsular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country is not represented.[78] Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply forBritish emergency passports.[79] Australia issuesDocuments of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently.[80]
The close association among Commonwealth countries is reflected in their diplomatic protocols. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors.[81]
Other institutional connections exist between Commonwealth countries. These include, between some, connections to other parts of the Commonwealth through judicial and military institutions.
Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to theHigh Court of Fiji, with the court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations.[83][84]
Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in theBritish Armed Forces. According to theBritish Army, "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army."[85] Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies.[86]
TheFive Power Defence Arrangements is a defence partnership between Commonwealth countries Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and Britain.[87]
The members of the Commonwealth shaded according to their political status. Commonwealth realms are shown in blue, while republics are shaded pink, and members with their own monarchies are displayed in green.
The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. TheStatute of Westminster 1931, as a fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognisedKing George VI as "Head of the Commonwealth".[91] In the wake of the wave ofdecolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect forracial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles ofworld peace,liberty,human rights,equality, andfree trade.[92]
These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[93] until, in 1991, theHarare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of theCold War, and the end ofapartheid in South Africa.[94] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created theCommonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[95] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under theEdinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.[96]
In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with theHarare principles, be fullysovereign states, recogniseKing Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership.[96] These requirements had undergone review, and a report on potential amendments was presented by theCommittee on Commonwealth Membership at the2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[97] New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the2009 CHOGM.[98]
New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.[52]
In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined.[53] Consideration for Rwanda's admission was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by theCommonwealth Secretariat.[99] Rwanda was permitted to join despite theCommonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission".[100] CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish the reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air."[100]
In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth.[54]
The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents.[101] 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023, the Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion.[102] The Commonwealth is the largest association of 'Third World' or 'Global South' countries.[103]
With a population of 1.4 billion in 2023, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people at the time.[102]
The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status was originally known as "special membership", but was renamed on theCommittee on Commonwealth Membership's recommendation.[104] There are currently no members in arrears. The last member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011.[105] Nauru previously alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation.[106]
In 2019, the Commonwealth members had a combinedgross domestic product of over $9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($3.124 trillion), Canada ($1.652 trillion), and Australia ($1.379 trillion).[107]
In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in theHarare Declaration; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions.[108]
South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth.[109] A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach".[110] Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership.[110]
PresidentYahya Jammeh unilaterally withdrew the Gambia from the Commonwealth in October 2013.[111] However,newly elected presidentAdama Barrow returned the country to the organisation in February 2018.[112]
All three of the Crown dependencies regard their existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change. In 2012, theStates of Jersey called on the UK foreign secretary to request that the Commonwealth heads of government "consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy". Jersey proposed that it be accorded "self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in debates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions with those who are full members; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings, which is reserved for full members".[117] TheStates of Guernsey and theGovernment of the Isle of Man made calls of a similar nature in the same year for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth,[118] including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and meetings, including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.[119] TheChief Minister of the Isle of Man said that a "closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further development of the Island's international relationships".[120]
Members can be suspended "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for "serious or persistent violations" of theHarare Declaration, particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government.[121] Suspensions are agreed by theCommonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation.
Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth during the presidency ofRobert Mugabe (pictured), subsequently withdrawing. The country applied to rejoin following Mugabe's removal from power.
Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999,[122] following its execution ofKen Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the1995 CHOGM.[123] Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999, following themilitary coup byPervez Musharraf.[124] The Commonwealth's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the restoration ofthe country's constitution.[125] Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharrafcalled a state of emergency.[126] Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies ofRobert Mugabe'sZANU-PF government,[127] before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003.[128] On 15 May 2018, Zimbabwe applied to rejoin the Commonwealth.[129]
The declaration of a Republic inFiji in 1987, aftermilitary coups designed to denyIndo-Fijians political power, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.[130][131] Fiji has since been suspended twice, with the first imposed from 6 June 2000[132] to 20 December 2001 afteranother coup.[127] Fiji was suspended yet again in December 2006, followingthe most recent coup. At first, the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth.[130][133] After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national elections by 2010, Fiji was "fully suspended" on 1 September 2009.[130][133] The secretary-general of the Commonwealth,Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings,sporting events and the technical assistance programme (with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat.[130] On 19 March 2014 Fiji's full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji to join a number of Commonwealth activities, including the Commonwealth Games.[134] Fiji's suspension was lifted in September 2014.[135] The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member followingelections in September 2014.[136]
Most recently, during 2013 and 2014, international pressure mounted to suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth, citing grave human rights violations by the government of PresidentMahinda Rajapaksa. There were also calls to change theCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka to another member country. Canadian prime ministerStephen Harper threatened to boycott the event, but was instead represented at the meeting byDeepak Obhrai. UK prime ministerDavid Cameron also chose to attend.[137][138] These concerns were rendered moot bythe election of opposition leaderMaithripala Sirisena as president in 2015.[139]
As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. The first state to do so was Ireland in 1949 following its decision todeclare itself a republic, although it had not participated in the Commonwealth since 1932. At the time, all members accepted theBritish monarch as head of state as a condition of membership. This rule was changed after Ireland's departure to allowIndia to retain membership when it became a republic in 1950, although Ireland did not rejoin. Now, the majority of the Commonwealth members, including all those from Africa, are republics or have their own native monarch.
Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe's membership was suspended in 2002 on the grounds ofalleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment, and Zimbabwe's government terminated its membership in 2003.[140] The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013,[111] and rejoined on 8 February 2018.[112]
The Maldives withdrew from the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016,[141][142] citing Commonwealth's "punitive actions against the Maldives since 2012" after the allegedly forced resignation of Maldivian PresidentMohamed Nasheed among the reasons for withdrawal.[142] Following the election ofIbrahim Mohamed Solih as president in November 2018, the Maldives announced its intention to reapply to join the Commonwealth.[143] It rejoined on 1 February 2020.[144]
No country has been formally expelled from the Commonwealth.[145] However, South Africa's application to remain a member of the organisation after becoming a republic in 1961 was effectively blocked due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, toapartheid. The South African government withdrew its application when it became clear at the1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that it would be rejected.[146] South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following itsfirst multiracial elections that year. The Commonwealth provided technical assistance and training for a peacekeeping force prior to election, with Commonwealth observers significantly present during the election itself.[147]
The Commonwealth's highest-priority aims concern the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003Aso Rock Declaration,[151] which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation."[152]
In October 2010, a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructing staff not to speak out on human rights was published, leading to accusations that the Commonwealth was not being vocal enough on its core values.[153]
TheCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 considered a report by aCommonwealth Eminent Persons Group (EPG) panel which asserted that the organisation had lost its relevance and was decaying due to the lack of a mechanism to censure member countries when they violated human rights or democratic norms.[154] The panel made 106 "urgent" recommendations including the adoption of a Charter of the Commonwealth, the creation of a new commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and human rights to track persistent human rights abuses and allegations of political repression by Commonwealth member states, recommendations for the repeal oflaws againsthomosexuality in 41 Commonwealth states and a ban onforced marriage.[155][156] The failure to release the report, or accept its recommendations for reforms in the area of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, was described as a "disgrace" by former British foreign secretaryMalcolm Rifkind, a member of the EPG, who told a press conference: "The Commonwealth faces a very significant problem. It's not a problem of hostility or antagonism, it's more of a problem of indifference. Its purpose is being questioned, its relevance is being questioned and part of that is because its commitment to enforce the values for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyes of many member states. The Commonwealth is not a private club of the governments or the secretariat. It belongs to the people of the Commonwealth."[156]
In the end, two-thirds of the EPG's 106 urgently recommended reforms were referred to study groups, an act described by one EPG member as having them "kicked into the long grass". There was no agreement to create the recommended position of human rights commissioner, instead a ministerial management group was empowered with enforcement: the group includes alleged human rights offenders. It was agreed to develop a charter of values for the Commonwealth without any decision on how compliance with its principles would be enforced.[154]
The result of the effort was that a newCharter of the Commonwealth was signed by Queen Elizabeth II on 11 March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes "all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, colour, creed, political belief or other grounds".[157][158]
During the Second World War, the British Empire played a major role in supporting British finances. Foreign exchange reserves were pooled in London, to be used to fight the war. In effect the United Kingdom procured £2.3 billion, of which £1.3 billion was fromBritish India. The debt was held in the form of British government securities and became known as "sterling balances". By 1950, India, Pakistan and Ceylon had spent much of their sterling, while other countries accumulated more. The sterling area included all of the Commonwealth except for Canada, together with some smaller countries especially in the Persian Gulf. They held their foreign-exchange in sterling, protecting that currency from runs and facilitating trade and investment inside the Commonwealth. It was a formal relationship with fixed exchange rates, periodic meetings at Commonwealth summits to coordinate trade policy, and domestic economic policies. The United Kingdom ran a trade surplus, and the other countries were mostly producers of raw materials sold to the United Kingdom. The commercial rationale was gradually less attractive to the Commonwealth; however, access to the growing London capital market remained an important advantage to the newly independent nations. As the United Kingdom moved increasingly close to Europe, however, the long-term ties began to be in doubt.[166]
By 1961, with a sluggish economy, the United Kingdom attempted to join theEuropean Economic Community, but this was repeatedly vetoed byCharles de Gaulle.[167]Entry was finally achieved in 1973. Queen Elizabeth was one of the few remaining links between the UK and the Commonwealth. HistorianBen Pimlott argues that joining Europe "constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between the United Kingdom and its former Empire... It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal niceties."[168]
The newly independent countries of Africa and Asia concentrated on their own internal political and economic development, and sometimes their role in theCold War. The United States, international agencies, and the Soviet Union became important players, and the British role receded. While there was opposition to British entry into the EEC from many countries, such as Australia, others preferred the economic advantages brought by British access to the Common Market.[169] The historic ties between the former dominion nations and the United Kingdom were rapidly fraying. The Canadian economy increasingly focused on trade with the United States, and not on trade with the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth nations. Internal Canadian disputes revolved around the growing American cultural and economic presence, and the strong force ofQuebec nationalism. In 1964, theMaple Leaf flag replaced theCanadian Ensign, with Gregory Johnson describing it as "the last gasp of empire".[170] Australia and New Zealand were generally opposed to the United Kingdom's entry and exerted considerable influence on the eventual terms of accession in 1972, for which the United Kingdom agreed to transitional arrangements and monetary compensation to protect important export markets.[171][172] Russell Ward summarises the period in economic terms: "In fact the United Kingdom, as Australia's chief trading partner, was being very rapidly replaced just at this time by the United States and an economically resurgent Japan, but most people were scarcely aware of this.... It was feared that British entry into the Common Market was bound to mean abolition, or at least scaling down, of preferential tariff arrangements for Australians goods."[173]
Although the Commonwealth does not have a multilateral trade agreement, research by theRoyal Commonwealth Society has shown that trade with another Commonwealth member is up to 50% more than with a non-member on average, with smaller and less wealthy states having a higher propensity to trade within the Commonwealth.[174] At the 2005 Summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed pursuing free trade among Commonwealth members on a bilateral basis.[175]
Following itsvote in June 2016 to leave theEuropean Union,[176] some in the United Kingdom suggested the Commonwealth as an alternative to itsmembership in the EU;[177] however, it was far from clear that this would either offer sufficient economic benefit to replace the impact of leaving the EU or be acceptable to other member states.[178] In 2021, following the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, Australia and the United Kingdom signed theAustralia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement, which on ratification eliminated tariffs and increased opportunities for movement between the two countries.[179][180]
Canada exempts most goods from theCommonwealth Caribbean, consisting of Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories in the region, from import duties.[181]
Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education, law, and charity claiming to operate on a Commonwealth-wide basis.
The Commonwealth Secretariat regulates formal accreditation with the Commonwealth through its Accreditation Committee. The admittance criteria includes upholding a commitment to the Commonwealth Charter. Formally accredited organisations include theAssociation of Commonwealth Universities, which manages theCommonwealth Scholarship allowing students to study in other Commonwealth countries, and theCommonwealth Parliamentary Association which links together over 180 Commonwealth parliaments.[182]
TheCommonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centred and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.[183]
The Foundation was established in 1965 by theHeads of Government. Admittance is open to all members of the Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at 46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered inMarlborough House,Pall Mall, London. Regular liaison and co-operation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding.[183]
TheCommonwealth Games are the third-largest multi-sport event in the world, bringing together globally popular sports and peculiarly "Commonwealth" sports, such asrugby sevens, shown here at the2006 Games inMelbourne.
The games are the Commonwealth's most visible activity[184] and interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly when the Games are held.[186] There is controversy over whether the games—and sport generally—should be involved in the Commonwealth's wider political concerns.[185] The 1977Gleneagles Agreement was signed to commit Commonwealth countries to combatapartheid through discouraging sporting contact with South Africa (which was not then a member), while the1986 games were boycotted by most African, Asian, and Caribbean countries for the failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.[187]
TheCommonwealth Youth Games is the youth version of the Commonwealth Games and it is aimed from younger athletes aged between 14 and 18 years. The2000 Commonwealth Youth Games was the inaugural edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games, first held in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Themost recent edition of the games was held in 2023 in Trinidad and Tobago.
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for maintaining thewar graves of 1.7 million service personnel who died in the First and Second World Wars fighting for Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial War Graves Commission), the commission has constructed 2,500war cemeteries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000 sites around the world.[188] The vast majority of the latter are civilian cemeteries in the United Kingdom. In 1998, the CWGC made the records of its buried available online to facilitate easier searching.[189]
Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similarhorticulture and architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to aCross of Sacrifice andStone of Remembrance. The CWGC is notable for marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of origin, race, or religion of the buried.[189][note 1] It is funded by voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves maintained,[188] with 75% of the funding coming from the United Kingdom.[189]
The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by theheads of government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.[191]
The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) is a global local government organisation, bringing together local authorities, their national associations and the ministries responsible for local government in the member countries of the Commonwealth. CLGF works with national andlocal governments to support the development ofdemocratic values and good local governance and is the associated organisation officially recognised byCommonwealth Heads of Government as the representative body for local government in the Commonwealth.[192]
CLGF is unique in bringing together central, provincial and local spheres of government involved in local government policy and decision-making. CLGF members include local government associations, individual local authorities, ministries dealing with local government, and research and professional organisations who work with local government. Practitioner to practitioner support is at the core of CLGF's work across the Commonwealth and within the region, using CLGF's own members to support others both within and between regions. CLGF is a member of the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, the formal partner of the UN Major Group of Local Authorities.[193]
Commonwealth countries share a common culture which includes the English language, sports, legal systems, education and government. These commonalities are the result of the Commonwealth's heritage, having developed out of the British Empire.[194][195] Symbols of the Commonwealth include theCommonwealth Flag andCommonwealth Day.Remembrance Day is commemorated across the Commonwealth.[196][197] Celebrations forGuy Fawkes Night take place in some Commonwealth countries.[198]
Rwanda Cricket Stadium,Kigali,Rwanda. Commonwealth membership has been credited with popularising the game in the country, which was never in the British Empire.
Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially British in character, rooted in and developed under British rule or hegemony, includingcricket,association football,rugby football,field hockey andnetball. These ties are particularly strong between the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa acrossrugby union,cricket,netball, andfield hockey, with Australia inrugby league, with the Caribbean nations in cricket and netball, and with the Indian subcontinentin cricket and hockey. Canada, by contrast, is dominated by North American sports, including baseball instead of cricket, basketball rather than netball, ice hockey rather than field hockey and Canadian football, rather than rugby union or league. Canada does, however, maintain small enthusiastic communities in all the more traditional Commonwealth sports, having reached the World Cup in each of them, and is the homeplace of theCommonwealth Games, hosting theinaugural edition in Hamilton in 1930.[199]
This shared sporting landscape has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have often defined their relations with each other, and in the cases of India, Australia and New Zealand, have played a major part in defining their emerging national character (in cricket, rugby league and rugby union). Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth.[200] Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the adoption ofcricket at schools in Rwanda is seen as symbolic of the country's move towards Commonwealth membership.[201][202] More broadly, Rwanda's membership of the Commonwealth has been credited with helping popularise cricket in the country, with both men and women playing it in orphanages, schools, universities and cricket clubs.[203]
The Commonwealth Games alongside the youth version, a quadrennial multi-sports event held in the middle year of anOlympic cycle is the most visible demonstration of these sporting ties. The Games include standard multi-sports disciplines like athletics, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, boxing, field hockey, and cycling, but also includes sports popular in the Commonwealth that are distinct to the Games such as netball, squash and lawn bowls. They are also more avowedly political than events like the Olympics, promoting what are seen as Commonwealth values; historically, a history of shared military endeavour was celebrated and promoted, parasport and disability sport is fully integrated, and the Commonwealth Games Federation has publicly backed the rights of LGBT people, despite the continuing criminalisation of homosexuality in many Commonwealth countries.
The shared history of British presence has produced a substantial body of writing in many languages, known as Commonwealth literature.[204][205] The Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) has 11 branches worldwide and holds an international conference every three years.[206]
In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annualCommonwealth Writers' Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in the Commonwealth; there are also regional prizes for the best book and best first book in each of four regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious annualMan Booker Prize, one of the highest honours in literature,[207] used to be awarded only to authors from Commonwealth countries or former members such as Ireland and Zimbabwe. Since 2014, however, writers of any nationality have been eligible for the prize providing that they write originally in English and their novels are published by established publishers in the United Kingdom.[208] Today, the Commonwealth Foundation awards the annualCommonwealth Short Story Prize.[209]
Many other Commonwealth writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English, includingNigerian novelistChinua Achebe, and playwrightWole Soyinka. Soyinka won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986, as did South African novelistNadine Gordimer in 1995. Other South African writers in English are novelistJ. M. Coetzee (Nobel Prize 2003) and playwrightAthol Fugard. Kenya's most internationally renowned author isNgũgĩ wa Thiong'o, author of novels, plays and short stories in English. PoetDerek Walcott, fromSaint Lucia in the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992. An Australian,Patrick White, a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won in 1973. Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poetLes Murray, and novelistPeter Carey, who is one of only four writers to have won theBooker Prize twice.[213]
Nonetheless, Commonwealth leadership was criticised for admitting Gabon as a member at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kigali, Rwanda – a country with poor human rights record – despite the fact that Gabon had been governed for 56 years by the kleptocratic Bongo family, until they were overthrown in a coup in 2023.[216]
Most Commonwealth countries usecommon law, modelled onEnglish law.[217] The Latimer House Principles adopted in 2003 reflect theseparation of powers.[218] Judges are appointed by independent commissions in most Commonwealth countries, a change which took place across the Commonwealth in the late 20th and early 21st centuries and is reflected in the Cape Town Principles.[219]
The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. The English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as "the means of Commonwealth communication" is a prerequisite for Commonwealth membership.
Theflag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol of the Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surrounded by emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was designed for thesecond CHOGM in 1973, and officially adopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorateCommonwealth Day, the second Monday in March, having developed separately on different dates fromEmpire Day celebrations.[220]
Also to mark the 60th anniversary (Diamond Jubilee) of the Commonwealth in 2009, the Commonwealth Secretariat commissioned Paul Carroll to compose "The Commonwealth Anthem". The lyrics of the Anthem are taken from the 1948Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[221] The Commonwealth Youth Orchestra published renditions of the Anthem with and without an introductory narrative.[222][223]
In 2009, to mark the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Commonwealth, theRoyal Commonwealth Society commissioned a poll of public opinion in seven of the member states: Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. It found that most people in these countries were largely ignorant of the Commonwealth's activities, aside from theCommonwealth Games, and indifferent toward its future. Support for the Commonwealth was twice as high in developing countries as in developed countries; it was lowest in the United Kingdom.[224][225][226][227]
^Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives.[190]
^"Commonwealth Charter". 6 June 2013. Archived fromthe original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved5 March 2019.Recalling that the Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent and equal sovereign states, each responsible for its own policies, consulting and co-operating in the common interests of our peoples and in the promotion of international understanding and world peace, and influencing international society to the benefit of all through the pursuit of common principles and values
^abc"About Us". Commonwealth Secretariat.Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved25 March 2024.
^Srinivasan, Krishnan (2008).The rise, decline, and future of the British Commonwealth (Paperback ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1.ISBN978-0-230-20367-9.
^"The Commonwealth".The Victoria League for Commonwealth Friendship. 21 May 2019.Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved1 September 2021.
^F.S. Crafford,Jan Smuts: A Biography (2005) p. 142
^The IrishOath of Allegiance, agreed in 1921, included theIrish Free State's "adherence to and membership of the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth of Nations".
^Pakenham, Frank (1972).Peace by ordeal: an account, from first-hand sources of the negotiation and signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921. Sidgwick and Jackson.ISBN978-0-283-97908-8.
^Dugard, John; Bethlehem, Daniel; Plessis, Max du; Katz, Anton (2005).International law: a South African perspective. Lansdowne, South Africa: Juta. p. 19.ISBN978-0-7021-7121-5.
^Merriman, J.; Winter, J., eds. (2006). "British Empire".Europe since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 45.ISBN978-0-684-31366-5.OCLC68221208.
^Whyte, J. H. (2010)."Economic crisis and political cold war, 1949-57". In Hill, J. R. (ed.).A New History of Ireland. Vol. VII: Ireland,1921–84. Oxford University Press. p. 277 (footnote 20).ISBN978-0-19-161559-7.Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved6 August 2019.The Republic of Ireland Act, 1948...repealed the external relations act, and provided for the declaration of a republic, which came into force on 18 Apr. 1949, when Ireland left the commonwealth.
^High Commissioner in United Kingdom (24 November 1952)."Royal Style and Titles".Documents on Canadian External Relations > Royal Style and Titles.18 (2). DEA/50121-B-40. Archived fromthe original on 23 November 2011.
^Harris, Rob (11 March 2025)."Rubio says Ukraine may need to do 'difficult things' to get peace deal".The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved12 March 2025.British Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer will host what he has called "a coalition of the willing" – a group of mainly European and Commonwealth countries.
^Nolan v Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs[1988] HCA 45
^"Support for British nationals abroad: a guide"(PDF). Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 2013. p. 5. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 October 2013.We may also help Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries where they do not have any diplomatic or consular representation, but will normally ask their nearest embassy to provide any ongoing assistance required.
^Three Commonwealth countries also have long-standing claims to sovereignty inAntarctica, although these claims are not widely recognised. The claims, which each include permanent research stations and together cover most of the continent, are theAustralian Antarctic Territory, theBritish Antarctic Territory and theRoss Dependency (New Zealand).
^Catherine R. Schenk, "Britain in the world economy." in Paul Addison and Harriet Jones, eds.,A Companion to Contemporary Britain: 1939–2000 (2005): 436–481, esp. 469-71.
^Alan S. Milward,The rise and fall of a national strategy, 1945–1963 (2002).
^Gregory A. Johnson, "The Last Gasp of Empire: The 1964 Flag Debate Revisited", in Phillip Buckner, ed.,Canada and the End of Empire (University of British Columbia Press, 2005), p. 6.
^Andrea Benvenuti,"'Layin' Low and Sayin' Nuffin': Australia's Policy towards Britain's Second Bid to Join the European Economic Community (1966–67)"Australian Economic History Review 46#2 (2006): 155–175.
^Perkin, Harold (September 1989). "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British Empire and Commonwealth".International Journal of the History of Sport.6 (2):145–155.doi:10.1080/09523368908713685.
Ashton, Sarah R. "British government perspectives on the Commonwealth, 1964–71: An asset or a liability?".Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35.1 (2007): 73–94.
Lloyd, Lorna.Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006 (Brill, 2007).
McIntyre, W. David. "The strange death of dominion status".Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27.2 (1999): 193–212.
McIntyre, W. David.The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971 (University of Minnesota Press, 1977); Comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political and constitutional relations with each possession.
McIntyre, W. David.A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth, Palgrave, 2001.ISBN978-0-333-96310-4.
McIntyre, W. David. "The Unofficial Commonwealth Relations Conferences, 1933–59: Precursors of the Tri-sector Commonwealth."Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36.4 (2008): 591–614.
Madden, Frederick and John Darwin, eds.The Dependent Empire, 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and the Mandates (1994), 908 pp.onlineArchived 2 February 2017 at theWayback Machine
Maitland, Donald. ed.Britain, the Commonwealth and Europe (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001)onlineArchived 19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine
Moore, R.J.Making the New Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1988.ISBN978-0-19-820112-0.
Murphy, Philip.Monarchy and the End of Empire: The House of Windsor, the British Government, and the Postwar Commonwealth (Oxford UP 2013)doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199214235.001.0001
Perkin, Harold. "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth".International Journal of the History of Sport 6.2 (1989): 145–155.
Shaw, Timothy M.Commonwealth: Inter- and Non-State Contributions to Global Governance, Routledge, 2008.ISBN978-0-415-35120-1
Srinivasan, Krishnan.The rise, decline and future of the British Commonwealth (Springer, 2005).
Wheare, K. C.The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1960.ISBN978-0-313-23624-2.
Williams, Paul D. "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth".The Round Table 94.380 (2005): 381–391.
Winks, Robin, ed.The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966)onlineArchived 23 June 2017 at theWayback Machine
Madden, Frederick, ed.The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth: The West Indies, British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands (2000)onlineArchived 19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine 596pp
Madden, Frederick, and John Darwin, ed.The Dependent Empire: 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates (1963), 908pponlineArchived 2 February 2017 at theWayback Machine
Mansergh, Nicholas, ed.Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952–1962 (1963), 804pponlineArchived 19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine
24Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under theAntarctic Treaty.
_(cropped)_(3-to-4_aspect_ratio).jpg)
.jpg)
_(2).jpg)
.jpg)
