| Author | Ibn Sina |
|---|---|
| Original title | كتاب الشفاء |
| Language | Arabic |
| Subject | Philosophy, Natural sciences, Mathematics, Logic, Metaphysics |
| Genre | Scientific and philosophical encyclopedia |
| Published | 1027 (Arabic) |
| Publication place | Islamic world (Persia) |
| Media type | Manuscript (original); hardcover/paperback (modern editions) |
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The Book of Healing (Arabic:کتاب الشفاء,romanized: Kitāb al-Shifāʾ;Latin:Sufficientia; also known asThe Cure orAssepha)is ascientific andphilosophicalencyclopedia written byAbu Ali ibn Sīna (also known as Avicenna). He most likely began to compose the book in 1014, completed it around 1020,[1] and published it in 1027.[2][3]
This work is Ibn Sina's major work onscience andphilosophy, and is intended to "cure" or "heal" ignorance of the soul. Thus, despite its title, it is not concerned with medicine, in contrast to Avicenna's earlierThe Canon of Medicine (5 vols.) which is, in fact, medical.
The book is divided into four parts:logic,natural sciences,mathematics (aquadrivium ofarithmetic, geometry,astronomy), andmetaphysics.[3] It was influenced by ancientGreek philosophers such asAristotle;Hellenistic thinkers such asPtolemy; and earlierPersian/Muslim scientists and philosophers, such asAl-Kindi (Alkindus),Al-Farabi (Alfarabi), andAl-Bīrūnī.
Inastronomy, the book proposes the theory thatVenus is closer toEarth than theSun.
Ibn Sina's theory on the formation ofmetals combined thealchemicalsulfur-mercury theory of metals (although he was a critic ofalchemy) with themineralogical theories ofAristotle andTheophrastus. He created a synthesis of ideas concerning the nature of themineral andmetallic states.[4]
Toulmin andGoodfield (1965), commented on Avicenna's contribution togeology:[5]
Around A.D. 1000, Avicenna was already suggesting a hypothesis about the origin of mountain ranges, which in the Christian world, would still have been considered quite radical eight hundred years later
Ibn Sina also contributed topaleontology with his explanation of how thestoniness offossils was caused.Aristotle previously explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Ibn Sina modified into the theory ofpetrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus), which was elaborated on byAlbertus Magnus in the 13th century and accepted in some form by mostnaturalists by the 16th century.[6] Ibn Sina made the following observation on the theories held at the time on fossils and thepetrifaction of plants and animals:
"If what is said concerning the petrifaction of animals and plants is true, the cause of this (phenomenon) is a powerful mineralizing and petrifying virtue which arises in certain stony spots, or emanates suddenly from the earth during earthquake and subsidences, and petrifies whatever comes into contact with it. As a matter of fact, the petrifaction of the bodies of plants and animals is not more extraordinary than the transformation of waters."
InThe Book of Healing, Avicenna discusses themind, itsexistence, the mind–body relationship,sensation,perception, etc. He writes that at the most common level, the influence of the mind on the body can be seen in voluntary movements, in that the body obeys whenever the mind wishes to move the body. He further writes that the second level of influence of the mind on the body is fromemotions and thewill. As an example, he states that if a plank of wood is placed as a bridge over achasm, a person could hardly creep over it without falling if that person only pictures themself in a possible fall so vividly that the "natural power of limbs accord with it."
He also writes that strongnegative emotions can have a negative effect on the vegetative functions of an individual and may even lead to death in some cases. He also discusseshypnosis (al Wahm al-Amil), stating that one could create conditions in another person so that they accepts the reality of hypnosis. Avicenna was also the first to divide humanperception into the five externalsenses (the classical senses ofhearing,sight,smell,taste andtouch known sinceancient history) and the five internal senses which he discovered himself:[7]: 366
Avicenna also givespsychological explanations for certainsomatic illnesses, always linking the physical and psychological illnesses together. He describesmelancholia (i.e.depression) as a type ofmood disorder in which the person may become suspicious and develop certain types ofphobias. He states thatanger heralds the transition of melancholia tomania, and explains thathumidity inside the head can contribute to mood disorders. He recognizes that this occurs when the amount ofbreath changes:happiness increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture inside thebrain, but if this moisture goes beyond its limits, the brain would lose control over itsrationality and lead tomental disorders. He also writes about symptoms and treatments fornightmare,epilepsy, and weakmemory.[7]: 366
Avicenna often used psychological methods to treat his patients.[7]: 366 One such example is when a Persian prince had melancholia, suffering from thedelusion that he was acow. He would moo and cry out, "Kill me so that a good stew may be made of my flesh," and would never eat anything. Avicenna was persuaded to take the case. Avicenna sent a message to the patient, asking him to be happy as the butcher was coming to slaughter him, and the sick man rejoiced. When Avicenna approached the prince with a knife in his hand, he asked "where is the cow so I may kill it." The patient then mooed like a cow to indicate where he was. The patient was laid on the ground for slaughter. When Avicenna approached the patient, pretending to be ready to slaughter him, he said, "the cow is too lean and not ready to be killed. He must be fed properly and I will kill it when it becomes healthy and fat." The patient was then offered food which he ate eagerly, and gradually "gained strength, got rid of his delusion, and was completely cured."[7]: 376
In themedieval Islamic world, due to Avicenna's successful reconciliation ofAristotelianism andNeoplatonism along withKalam,Avicennism eventually became the leading school ofearly Islamic philosophy by the 12th century, with Avicenna becoming a central authority on philosophy.[8]
Avicennism was also influential inmedieval Europe, particular his doctrines on the nature of thesoul and hisexistence-essence distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised inscholastic Europe. This was particularly the case inParis, where Avicennism was laterproscribed in 1210. Nevertheless, hisMuslim psychology and theory of knowledge influencedWilliam of Auvergne andAlbertus Magnus, while hismetaphysics influenced the thought ofThomas Aquinas.[9]
Avicenna discussed the topic oflogic in Islamic philosophy extensively in his works, and developed his ownsystem of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative toAristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.[10] After theLatin translations of the 12th century, his writings on logic were also an important influence on Western medieval writers such asAlbertus Magnus.[11]
He wrote on thehypothetical syllogism[2][3] and on thepropositional calculus, which were both part of the Stoic logical tradition.[12] He developed an original theory of “temporallymodalized”syllogistic[13] and made use ofinductive logic, such as themethods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to thescientific method.[2]
EarlyIslamic metaphysics, imbued as it is withIslamic theology, distinguishes more clearly thanAristotelianism the difference betweenessence andexistence.[citation needed] Whereasexistence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental,essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Ibn Sīnā, particularly that part relating tometaphysics, owes much toal-Farabi. The search for a truly definitive Islamic philosophy can be seen in what is left to us of his work.
Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question ofbeing, in which he distinguished between essence (mahiat) and existence (wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to anagent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.[14]
Avicenna's proof for theexistence of God was the firstontological argument, which he proposes in the "Metaphysics" section ofThe Book of Healing.[15][16] This was the first attempt at using the method ofa priori proof, which utilizesintuition andreason alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both acosmological argument and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent."[17]
In the "Al-Burhan" ('On Demonstration') section of the book, Avicenna discusses thephilosophy of science and describes an earlyscientific method ofinquiry. He discussesAristotle'sPosterior Analytics and significantly diverges from it on several points. Avicenna explains the issue of a propermethodology forscientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asks how a scientist would arrive at "the initialaxioms orhypotheses of adeductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at thefirst principles: the ancientAristotelian method ofinduction (istiqra), and the method ofexamination andexperimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticizes Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certainpremises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."[18]
Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published inCairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of Ibrahim Madkour; some of these editions are given below.[1]
BYU's Islamic Translation Series includes two parts ofThe Healing.
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