The Art of War is an ancientChinese military treatise dating from the lateSpring and Autumn period (roughly 5th century BC). The work, which is attributed to the ancient Chinese military strategistSun Tzu ("Master Sun"), is composed of 13 chapters. Each one is devoted to a different set of skills orart related to warfare and how it applies tomilitary strategy andtactics. For almost 1,500 years, it was the lead text in an anthology that was formalized as theSeven Military Classics byEmperor Shenzong of Song in 1080.The Art of War remains one of the most influential works on strategy of all time[1] and has shaped both East Asian and Western military theory and thinking.[2]
The book contains a detailed explanation and analysis of the 5th-century BC Chinese military, from weapons, environmental conditions, and strategy to rank and discipline. Sun also stressed the importance of intelligence operatives and espionage to the war effort. Considered one of history's finest military tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed the basis of advanced military training throughout the world.
The text was first translated into a European language in 1772, when the French Jesuit priestJean Joseph Marie Amiot produced a French version; a revised edition was published in 1782. A partial translation into English was attempted by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905 under the titleThe Book of War. The first annotated English translation was completed and published byLionel Giles in 1910.[3] Military and political leaders such as the Chinese communist revolutionaryMao Zedong, JapanesedaimyōTakeda Shingen, Vietnamese generalVõ Nguyên Giáp, and American generalsDouglas MacArthur andNorman Schwarzkopf Jr. are all cited as having drawn inspiration from the book.[4]
The Art of War is traditionally attributed to an ancient Chinese military general known asSun Tzu (pinyin:Sūnzǐ), meaning 'Master Sun'. Sun Tzu is said to have lived in the 6th century BC, but the earliest parts ofThe Art of War probably date to at least 100 years later.[5]
Sima Qian'sShiji, the first of China'sTwenty-Four Histories, records an early Chinese tradition that a text on military matters was written by one Sun Wu (孫武) from thestate of Qi, and that this text had been read and studied byKing Helü of Wu (r. 514–495 BC).[6] This text was traditionally identified with the receivedMaster Sun's Art of War. The conventional view was that Sun Wu was a military theorist from the end of theSpring and Autumn period (776–471 BC) who fled Qi to the southeasternstate of Wu, where he is said to have impressed the king with his ability to quickly train officials, including court women, in military discipline—and to have made Wu's armies powerful enough to challenge the rivalstate of Chu to Wu's west. This view is still widely held in China.[7]
The strategist and warlordCao Cao in the early 3rd century AD authored the earliest known commentary to theArt of War.[6] Cao's preface makes clear that he edited the text and removed certain passages, but the extent of his changes were unclear historically.[6]The Art of War appears throughout the bibliographical catalogs of the Chinese dynastic histories, but listings of its divisions and size varied widely.[6]
Fragments ofThe Art of War discovered as a part of theYinqueshan Han Slips, showing the version ofThe Art of War that was popular inHan dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)
Beginning around the 12th century, Sun Tzu's historical existence began to be questioned by Chinese scholars, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classicZuo Zhuan, which mentions most of the notable figures from theSpring and Autumn period.[6] The name "Sun Wu" (孫武) does not appear in any text prior to theRecords of the Grand Historian,[8] and has been suspected to be a made-up descriptivecognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior", glossing the surname "Sun" as the related term "fugitive" (xùn遜), while "Wu" (wǔ武) is (1) the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" and (2) aJianghuai dialectal synonym of士;shì "knight",[9][10] which corresponds to Sunzi's role as the hero'sdoppelgänger in the story ofWu Zixu.[11] In the early 20th century, the Chinese writer and reformerLiang Qichao theorized that the text was actually written in the 4th century BC by Sun Tzu's purported descendantSun Bin, as a number of historical sources mention a military treatise he wrote.[6]
In 1972, theYinqueshan Han slips were discovered in twoHan dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) tombs near the city ofLinyi inShandong.[12] Among the manybamboo slip writings contained in the tombs, which had been sealed between 134 and 118 BC, were two separate texts: one attributed to "Sun Tzu", corresponding to the received text, and another attributed to Sun Bin, which explains and expands upon the earlierThe Art of War by Sunzi.[13] The Sun Bin text's material overlaps with much of the "Sun Tzu" text. The two may be "a single, continuously developing intellectual tradition united under the Sun name".[14] This discovery showed that much of the historical confusion was due to the fact that there were two texts that could have been referred to as "Master Sun's Art of War", not one.[13] The content of the earlier text is about one-third of the chapters of the modernThe Art of War, and their text matches very closely.[12] It is now generally accepted that the earlierThe Art of War was completed sometime between 500 and 430 BC.[13]
Detail Assessment and Planning (Chinese:始計;pinyin:shîjì)
First Calculations
Explores the five fundamental factors (the Way, seasons, terrain, leadership, and management) and seven elements (which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the way or moral law, which side's general is more capable, which side has superior in right time and right place, which side's laws and regulations can be enforced more strictly, which side has more resources, better equipment and stronger army, which side's officers and men are more well-trained and more capable of fighting, which side's rewards and punishments are more fair and clear) that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state and must not be commenced without due consideration.
II
Waging War
The Challenge
Waging War
Waging War (作戰;zuòzhàn)
Initiating Battle
Explains how to understand the economy of warfare and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
III
Attack by Stratagem
The Plan of Attack
Planning Offensives
Strategic Attack (謀攻)
Planning an Attack
Defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army and Cities.
IV
Tactical Dispositions
Positioning
Military Disposition
Disposition of the Army (軍形)
Forms to Perceive
Explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
V
Use of Energy
Directing
Strategic Military Power
Forces (兵勢)
The Disposition of Power
Explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
VI
Weak Points and Strong
Illusion and Reality
Vacuity and Substance
Weaknesses and Strengths (虛實)
Weak and Strong
Explains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy and how to respond to changes in the fluid battlefield over a given area.
VII
Maneuvering an Army
Engaging The Force
Military Combat
Military Maneuvers (軍爭)
Contending Armies
Explains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
VIII
Variation of Tactics
The Nine Variations
Nine Changes
Variations and Adaptability (九變)
Nine Contingencies
Focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
IX
The Army on the March
Moving The Force
Maneuvering the Army
Movement and Development of Troops (行軍)
Fielding the Army
Describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
X
Classification of Terrain
Situational Positioning
Configurations of Terrain
Terrain (地形)
Conformations of the Lands
Looks at the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers and barriers) and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offers certain advantages and disadvantages.
XI
The Nine Situations
The Nine Situations
Nine Terrains
The Nine Battlegrounds (九地)
Nine Kinds of Ground
Describes the nine common situations (or stages) in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
XII
Attack by Fire
The Fiery Attack
Incendiary Attacks
Attacking with Fire (火攻)
Attacks with Fire
Explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
XIII
Use of Spies
The Use of Intelligence
Employing Spies
Intelligence and Espionage (用間)
Using Spies
Focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.
AcrossEast Asia,The Art of War was part of the syllabus for potential candidates of military service examinations.
During theSengoku period (c. 1467–1568), the JapanesedaimyōTakeda Shingen (1521–1573) is said to have become almost invincible in all battles without relying onguns, because he studiedThe Art of War.[16] The book even gave him the inspiration for his famous battle standard"Fūrinkazan" (Wind, Forest, Fire and Mountain), meaning fast as the wind, silent as a forest, ferocious as fire and immovable as a mountain.
The translatorSamuel B. Griffith offers a chapter on "Sun Tzu and Mao Tse-Tung" whereThe Art of War is cited as influencing Mao'sOn Guerrilla Warfare,On the Protracted War andStrategic Problems of China's Revolutionary War, and includes Mao's quote: "We must not belittle the saying in the book of Sun Wu Tzu, the great military expert of ancient China, 'Know your enemy and know yourself and you can fight a thousand battles without disaster.'"[16]
During theVietnam War, someViet Cong officers extensively studiedThe Art of War and reportedly could recite entire passages from memory. GeneralVõ Nguyên Giáp successfully implemented tactics described inThe Art of War during theBattle of Dien Bien Phu ending major French involvement in Indochina and leading to the accords which partitioned Vietnam into North and South. General Giáp, later the main PVA military commander in the Vietnam War, was an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas.[17]
The United States' defeat in the Vietnam War, more than any other event, brought Sun Tzu to the attention of leaders of U.S. military theory.[17][18][19] TheDepartment of the Army in the United States, through itsCommand and General Staff College, listsThe Art of War as one example of a book that may be kept at a military unit's library.[20]The Art of War is listed on theUS Marine Corps Professional Reading Program (formerly known as the Commandant's Reading List). It is recommended reading for all United States Military Intelligence personnel.[21]The Art of War is also used as instructional material at theUnited States Military Academy (commonly known as West Point), in the course Military Strategy (470).[22] It is also recommended reading for Officer cadets at theRoyal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Some notable military leaders have stated the following about Sun Tzu andThe Art of War:
According to some authors, the strategy ofdeception fromThe Art of War was studied and widely used by theKGB: "I will force the enemy to take our strength for weakness, and our weakness for strength, and thus will turn his strength into weakness".[25]
Some of the book's admirers claim that it has a variety of applications in a myriad of competitive non-military endeavors across the modern world including espionage, culture, politics, business, and sports.[26][27][28][29][30]
Some business books have claimed to see metaphorical parallels from The Art of War tooffice politics and corporate business strategy.[31][32][33] Some Japanese companies make the book required reading for their keyexecutives.[34] Entrepreneurs and corporate executives have turned to it for inspiration and advice on how to succeed in competitive business situations. The book has also been applied to the field of education.[35]
The Art of War has been the subject of legal books[36] and legal articles on the trial process, including negotiation tactics and trial strategy.[37][38][39][40]
Playing To Win byDavid Sirlin analyses applications of the ideas fromThe Art of War in modern esports.[46]The Art of War was released in 2014 as ane-book companion alongside the Art of WarDLC forEuropa Universalis IV, a PC strategy game byParadox Development Studios, with a foreword by Thomas Johansson.
The Art of War and Sun Tzu have been referenced and quoted in many movies and television shows, including in the 1987 movieWall Street, in whichGordon Gekko (Michael Douglas) frequently references it, and commends his protege, Bud Fox, for being able to quote a relevant passage from memory.[47] The 20thJames Bond film,Die Another Day (2002) also referencesThe Art of War as the spiritual guide shared by Colonel Moon and his father.[48] InThe Sopranos, season 3, episode 8 ("He Is Risen"),Dr. Melfi suggests toTony Soprano that he read the book.[49]
In theStar Trek: The Next Generation first-season episode "The Last Outpost", first officerWilliam Riker quotesThe Art of War: "Fear is the true enemy, the only enemy".Captain Picard expressed pleasure that Sun Tzu was still taught atStarfleet Academy. Later in the episode, a survivor from a long-dead nonhuman empire noted common aspects between his own people's wisdom andThe Art of War with regard to knowing when and when not to fight.[50]
^Liu An (original compiler),Xu Shen (annotator).Huainan Honglie (Annotated), "Survey Obscurities". Main text: 「夫死生同域，不可脅陵，勇武一人，為三軍雄。」; Major et al.'s (2010) translation: "One for whom death and life are the same territory, who cannot be threatened, such a single bravewarrior is the hero of the Three Armies.";Siku Quanshu version. vols. 4-7,p. 96 of 160Archived 15 April 2023 at theWayback Machine; Annotation: 「武士也；江淮間謂士曰武。」
^Liu An (2010)The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Government in Early Han China. Translated and edited by John S. Major, Sarah A. Queen, Aandrew Seth Meyer, and Harold D. Roth. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. p. 215
^Sunzi (2009). Shawn Conners (ed.).Sun-tzu ping fa [The art of war]. Translated by Lionel Giles (Classic ed.). El Paso, TX: El Paso Norte Press.ISBN978-1-934255-15-5.OCLC433665014.
^abGriffith, Samuel B.The Illustrated Art of War. 2005. Oxford University Press. pp. 17, 141–43.
^abMcCready, Douglas. Learning from Sun Tzu,Military Review, May–June 2003."Learning from Sun Tzu". Archived fromthe original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved19 December 2009.
^Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012).The Illustrated Art of War: Sun Tzu. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.ASINB00B91XX8U
^Army, U. S. (1985).Military History and Professional Development. U. S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute. 85-CSI-21 85.
^"Messages".Archived from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved2 June 2009.
^Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick.The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia – Past, Present, and Future. 1994.ISBN0-374-52738-5, chapterWho was behind perestroika?
^McNeilly, Mark R. (2015).Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare (updated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 301.ISBN9780199957859. Retrieved14 December 2022.Sun Tzu is not talking about 'news' here but about espionage affairs, or matters or plans relating to espionage.
^Jeffrey, D (2010). "A Teacher Diary Study to Apply Ancient Art of War Strategies to Professional Development".The International Journal of Learning.7 (3):21–36.
^Barnhizer, David.The Warrior Lawyer: Powerful Strategies for Winning Legal Battles Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Bridge Street Books, 1997.
^Balch, Christopher D., "The Art of War and the Art of Trial Advocacy: Is There Common Ground?" (1991), 42 Mercer L. Rev. 861–73
Gawlikowski, Krzysztof;Loewe, Michael (1993). "Sun tzu ping fa 孫子兵法". In Loewe, Michael (ed.).Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley, CA: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 446–455.ISBN978-1-55729-043-4.
Graff, David A. (2002).Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900. Warfare and History. London:Routledge.ISBN978-0415239554.
Griffith, Samuel (2005).Sun Tzu: The Illustrated Art of War. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195189995.
Smith, Kidder (1999). "The Military Texts: TheSunzi". Inde Bary, Wm. Theodore (ed.).Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 213–224.ISBN978-0-231-10938-3.
